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in Malaysia
1SURAYA SINTANG, AZIZAN BAHARUDDIN & KHADIJAH MOHD KHAMBALI@HAMBALI
ABSTRACT
Dialogue of life i s a for m of inter-religious dialogue w hich commonly takes place at any place and any time. It is a dialogical relation to promote amicable r elation w ith people from different r el igions. It begi ns w hen one encounter s, lives and interacts w ith the other s and participates in daily life activities together . It is a social interaction which show s the involvement of non-elite participants in the inter -r eligious dialogue at the gr ass roots level. The non-elite par ticipation in the inter -r el igious dialogue is necessary to accommodate the challenge of plur alistic society. This kind of pr ocess w hich involves the social interaction in ever yday activity is know n as a dialogue of life. Those activities can be seen in the life experience of living together w ith mix-faith family, celebr ating festivit ies and w edding cer emony as w ell as doing (running) business w ith the other religious communities. The aim of this paper is to elucidate the concept of dialogue of life and how this dialogue has a significant impact on encouraging positive inter action among people of different r eligions in Malaysia.
Keywords: dialogue of life, inter -religious relat ion, Malaysia, non-Muslim.
Malaysia is one of the Southeast Asian countr ies that is know n for its diver sity in r eligion and cultur e. The diver sity r eflects not only at its var ious languages and multi-r acial society but also in multi-r eligious adher ents of the people. Osman (2009) ar gues that the diver sity of r eligion in Malaysia is the main social challenge needed to be handled effectively. This is mor e emphasized by Chandr a (2010) who said that cr eating an atmospher e that is conducive to inter -r eligious under standing and har mony is a challengei to Malaysian society. Cr eating har mony is the main agenda for inter -r eligious dialogue and this can be applied in a r oundtable discussion among the r eligious elites. In the moder n plur alistic society of pr actical living together , a dialogue aims to lear n something differ ent fr om the other s (Sw idler 2003) as w ell as to get to know the other s (Shehu 2008; Ber ghout 2008; Smith, 2007; Osman 2006; Azizan 2005; Khadijah 2004) as one whole human family.
1 Suraya Sintang, Ph.D. Lecturer at Univer siti Malaysia Sabah, 88400 Kota Kinabalu,
Malaysia. Email: suraya@ums.edu.my; Azizan Bahar uddin, Ph.D. Professor at Univer sity of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia. Email:azizanb@um.edu.my; Khadijah Mohd Hambali, Ph.D. Assoc. Pr of. at Academy of Islamic Studies, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur. Email: ijamh@um.edu.my.
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Getting to know the other s is a dialogical r elation to pr omote amicable r elationship w ith people of differ ent r eligions. It begins when one encounter s, lives and inter acts w ith the other s and par ticipates in daily life activities together . The social inter action mar k s the involvement of non-elite par ticipants in the inter -r eligious dialogue at the gr ass r oots level. The non-elite par ticipation in inter -r eligious dialogue is necessar y to accommodate the challenge of plur alistic society. The pr ocess of social inter action in ever yday activity is know n as a dialogue of life. Those activities can be seen in the life exper ience of living together with mix-faith family, celebr ating festivals and w edding cer emony as well as doing (r unning) business w ith other r eligious communities. Thus, the aim of this paper is to elucidate the concept of dialogue of life and how this dialogue has a significant impact on encour aging positive inter action betw een people of differ ent r eligions in Malaysia.
I nter -Religious Relation in Malaysia
The for mation of multi-r eligious society of Malaysia began when Chinese and India descent w er e given citizenship in the ear ly sixties (Chandr a 2010). It w as descr ibed by Chandr a as, “one of the gr eatest concessions that some indigenous people have made to non-indigenous communities in the entir e histor y of humankind.” It also show s the accommodation and acceptanceii of Malay-Muslims towar ds the non-Malay, non-Muslim communities as par t of the Malaysian population. Ther efor e, the r eadiness of living together w ith people of differ ent r eligions has begun as ear ly as the for mation of Malaysia w hich leads to the cr eation of multi-ethnic and multi-r eligious society compr ising thr ee big r aces and r eligions – Malay-Muslims, Chinese-Buddhist and Indian-Hindus. Ther e ar e also other dominant indigenous community of East Malaysia in Sabah and Sar awak which consist of Kadazandusun-Chr istians and Iban-Chr istians.
It is a challenge to Malaysia to maintain har mony and peaceful coexistence in a multi-r eligious society. It becomes mor e complex w hen dealing w ith inter -r eligious issues because the inter -r eligious issues ar e no longer dealing with theological pr oblems; r ather it is r elated mor e to the pr oblem of living together and social inter action. Mohd Far id Mohd Shahr an (2008) highlights the inter -r eligious issues per taining to the pr oblem of living together have dealt w ith the issue of sitting the ar ea of building r eligious wor ship, incongr uence betw een the system of civil and syar iah cour ts as well as the r eligious conver sion either to enter or leave any par ticular r eligion. The other issues concer n on the matter s of halal cer tificate by non-Muslim businessmen, the usage of Ar abic and Qur anic ter minologies, funer al pr ocess, Islamic pr opagation and so on.
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diver se ethnic communities of our planet, it is unlikely that w e will be able to guar antee the continuous sur vival of our planets.
In or der to ensur e the har monious r elation in multi-r eligious society of Malaysia, pr omoting dialogue at the gr ass r oot level can be a step to r each the goal because dialogue of life plays a major r ole in building br idges betw een people fr om diver se r eligious backgr ounds. Dialogue of life is a r eal dialogue which involves the non-elite par ticipants thr ough daily life inter actions and activities whether at var ious levels of individual, family, neighbor hood, fr iendship or official assignments (Wan Ar iffin 2011). The phenomenon of dialogue of life in Malaysian context can be seen in ever yday activities of living together , celebr ating r eligious festivities and social inter action at wor k and mar ketplace.
Concept of Dialogue of Life
Inter -r eligious dialogue takes many for ms, but is essentially a conscious attempt to build br idges of under standing, r espect, har mony, and fr iendship among r eligious communities. (http:/ / ww w .new wor ldencyclopedia.or g/ entr y/ Inter -r eligious_Dialogue). One of the for ms of inter r eligious dialogue is “dialogue of life” w hich involves daily life inter action between people of differ ent adher ents. The New World Encyclopedia r ecognizes the dialogue of life as the thir d tr end of inter r eligious dialogue for the new millennium. The fir st tr end of inter -r eligious dialogue is the continuing and developing instituitionalization of inte-r --r eligious dialogue. Ther e ar e now national or ganizations that br ing together member s of the major w or ld r eligions such as the Inter Faith Netw ork for the United Kingdom, founded in 1987. The second tr end is academic institutions w hich ar e involved in monitor ing and r eflecting the demogr aphy and other char acter istics of r eligious plur alism. This significant tr end finds its best example in the United States w ith the Pluralism Pr oject initiated in 1991 at Har var d Univer sity (http:/ / w ww .new wor ldencyclopedia.or g/ entr y/ Inter -r eligious_Dialogue).
Diana Eck (1986) identifies six types of dialogue, namely par liamentar y,iii institutional,iv theological,v spir itualvi and inner dialoguesvii as w ell as dialogue in a community or dialogue of life. Eck defines dialogue of life or dialogue in community as inclusive categor ies that encompass most of the unstr uctur ed inter action between people of differ ent tr aditions. These take place in mar kets and on str eet cor ner s, at times of festivals, in the cour se of civic or humanitar ian pr ojects, and at times of community or family cr isis. This sor t of dialogue takes place as people in communities think together about violence, militar ism, or economic depr ession. These dialogues happen spontaneously or of or ganized, concentr ate on pr actical issues of common concer n. Unfor tunately, these spontaneous dialogues ar e r ar ely r ecognized and celebr ated for their value, and or ganized community dialogues ar e mor e often pr ecipitated by a pr oblem or cr isis.
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ar e engaging in dialogue of life. They do not necessar ily discuss r eligion, but they dr aw on the values of their differ ent beliefs and tr aditions. This kind of dialogue implies concer n, r espect and hospitality towar ds one another . It leaves r oom for the other per son’s identity, modes of expr ession and values.
For Ar chbishop Mar cell Zago as descr ibed by Haney (2009), the inter -r eligious dialogue r efer s to five for ms of dialogue. Living dialogue or dialogue of life, dialogue of cooper ation,viii dialogue of r eligious exper ience,ix theological dialoguex and official dialogue ar e among r eligious author ities.xi Ar chbishop Mar cell Zago states that the most common for m of inter faith dialogue is that pr acticed by or dinar y people in the ever yday mar ketplace situations. Haney (2009) descr ibes that in pr actice, dialogue of life or living dialogue consists of r especting people as believer s on a neighbor ly basis and establishes constr uctive and positive r elations. Cer tainly, because of the r eligious diver sity that mar ks most ur ban communities, people of differ ent faith tr aditions inter act in ways that may encour age a deeper under standing of other people’s exper iences and the w ay they live their lives. This for m of living dialogue is most evident among those w ho w or k, study, tr ansact business and live in ur ban communities. Not only does this appr oach foster mutual w itness, it also causes one to come to a deeper under standing of his or her own faith and r eligious identity.
The dialogue of life is fur ther explained by Ubak a (2003), w ho said that this type of dialogue is an infor mal one, w her e people expr ess their view s, shar e their joys and sor r ow s and discuss their pr oblems fr eely. They do this to lear n fr om one another as well as to establish a loving r elationship w ith one another . It is inter esting to note that even at this level some for m of discussion on one’s r elationship w ith God will take place because people ar e basically r eligious, and matter s of r eligious inter est for m par t and par cel of their daily discussion. Pr att (2010) ar gues that Chr istians and Muslims ar e to be people of dialogue for w hom the fir st pr ior ity is the dialogue of life, wher e he explained as ’a positive acceptance, inter action and cooper ation by which we bear active w itness, as believer s, to the ideals to w hich God has called us’. The speech conveyed by Ar inze at ASEAN confer ence of Chr istian-Muslim r elation in Pattaya, Thailand in 1996 states that in or der to live in peace and har mony, to r emove discr imination and to build up their societies together , it is necessar y for Chr istians and Muslims to meet each other in a climate of deep mutual r espect and esteem. In this r espect, Ar inze defines dialogue of life as w her ein par ticipants live and wor k together and enr ich one another thr ough the faithful pr actice of the values of r eligion, w ithout the necessity of for mal discussion.
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It clear ly states that the concept of dialogue of life consists some elements of daily inter action, namely encounter ing each other ; involving non-elite par ticipants fr om the or dinar y people, who ar e not exper t in r eligious teachings that ar e conducted in the for m of infor mal conver sation taking place at anytime and anyplace; and the people show their w illingness to live together ; the dialogue aims to k now and lear n fr om each other as well as to establish loving r elationship r egar dless of their r eligious back gr ound. Most impor tantly this for m of dialogue can be a mechanism to br eak cultur al biases and pr ejudices among the people of living together . All these elements of dialogue of life ar e applicable to multi-r eligious Malaysian society in which they amulti-r e not only intemulti-r mingled and integmulti-r ate w ith each other , but also r eady to live together in a mix-faith family, is w illing to attend other r eligious cer emony and celebr ate var ious festivals together as well as mix ar ound w ith people fr om differ ent r eligions.
A Phenomenon of Dialogue of Life in Malaysia
The ter m dialogue of life is still not widely used to display a phenomenon of living together and daily life inter action between people of differ ent r eligions in Malaysia. Although the coexistence of Malaysian multi-r eligious society has begun since pr e-independence w hen they fr equently met and shar ed activities together ,xii w e fail to r ecognize that this kind of social inter action is par t of the inter r eligious dialogue oper ating at the gr ass r oots level. It is actually an infor mal dialogue or conver sation betw een the people of differ ent r eligions either within the cir cle of family member s or community.
This infor mal conver sation can be applied in the ever yday activities of living together with mix-faith family as exper ienced by Muslim conver ts in Malaysia. An inter view w ith selected Muslim conver ts in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah was car r ied out to shar e their exper ience of living together with their non-Muslim family of or igin. This can be illustr ated in the following nar r ative tr anscr iptions:
i) Almost a year after becoming Muslim, I see some changes in my family. For example, they don’t switch off the TV when the azan (the call for pr ayer ) is on air like what they did pr eviously. When I w atch a movie or dr ama conveying the message of Islam, I w ill tell them w hat it is about and they ar e r eady to listen to my explanation. Until now , they know a little bit about Mecca and the r easons why Muslims per for m Hajj ther e.
Dur ing Chr istmas, I go back to kampung for family gather ing. It is my r outine to pr epar e meals and cook ies for Chr istmas and I did it almost ever y year . I explained to them that I choose Islam because I feel comfor table being a Muslim. My mum alw ays sees me putting Yaasin (a ver se in Qur an) beside my bed.
(Sour ce: Inter view at May, 24th 2008 at the r espondent’s house, Apar tment Univer sity, Iban/ F-Tw u-Resp7)
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Islam. Don’t stick to your old dr ess code. It’s better if you wear headscar f.
One day, my father visited me and he didn’t see me per for ming solat. He said,”w hy don’t you per for m pr ayer , the mosque has called for pr ayer (azan)?”
He also used to ask me dur ing Ramadhan when he saw me eating. I r eplied,”I didn’t fast because I am having my menses.” My father said, “Was it not allow to fasting w hen you ar e having your menses?” “Yes,” I said. He then asked me again, “Why is it not allowed? He then advised me not to quit fasting after my menses ends.
I don’t feel any challenge or negative r esponse fr om my family after conver ting to Islam. I get full suppor t fr om them. For example, my father bought me a headscar f to wear and advise me not to w ear any sleeveless outfit anymor e. He always told to me to follow the teaching of my new r eligion. He used to tell me that he is pr oud of me of being his daughter even though w e ar e no longer in the same r eligion.
(Sour ce: Inter view on July 24th, 2009 at r eligious class of Ter atak Fitr ah, Rgs/ F-Kdt-Resp36).
The above findings show the element of dialogue of life w ithin the context of living together w ith mix-faith family as exper ienced by Muslim conver ts in Malaysia. The Muslim conver ts ar e no longer in the same r eligion with their family of or igin, yet they ar e still w illing to stay together w ith them. It is inter esting to highlight that the non-Muslim family begins to under stand Islam thr ough the exper ience of living together . In the sense that face-to-face inter action, spontaneous conver sation and shar ing daily life activities together ar e par t of the pr ocess of dialogue of life in the family cir cle of differ ent r eligions. The exper ience of Muslim conver ts living together with their family of or igin show s that the dialogue of life can be a mechanism to clar ify any misunder standing ar ises after conver ting to Islam. It can be said that the longer they live together w ith their non-Muslim family, the mor e they would explain the teachings of Islam to them. In other wor ds, the family of or igin w ill under stand Islam in a pr actical way by w itnessing how Islam is applied in ever yday activities. Thr ough the per for mance of solat (pr ayer ), fasting and wear ing hijab, Islam can be under stood by the means of non-ver bal communication. This is the way how the pr ocess of dialogue of life applicable in social inter action betw een Muslim-non-Muslim r elation in Malaysia. The dialogue of life as exper ienced by Muslim conver ts displays the Malaysian exper ience of living together w ith differ ent r eligious communities. It is the involvement of non-elite par ticipant fr om the individuals who have conver ted to Islam to convey the message of Islam thr ough infor mal conver sation. The inter action in daily basis explains how the pr ocess of dialogue of life significantly influences the per ception of the other s towar ds Islam. The pr ocess of encounter ing the other s even w ithout the conver sation has helped the non-Muslim family of Muslim conver ts under stand Islam in a simple manner . Their under standing may be differ fr om the pr evious one w hich is mor e likely to per ceive Islam in a negative way.
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conver ts. Never theless, the obstacle of living together in the mix-faith family of Muslim conver ts is unavoidable par ticular ly at the beginning of tr ansfor ming to the new spir itual life of Islam. How ever , it gr adually r educes to be a mor e positive inter action thr ough the constant and fr equent encounter betw een the tw o par ties of differ ent r eligions. The element of dialogue of life can also be descr ibed in the celebr ation of r eligious festivals together . In Malaysia, it is a common situation to see the diver se community of r eligions sitting down together to have a meal at the festive seasons of Eid Fitr i and Chinese New Year . Attending open houses for festive celebr ation is becoming a cultur e to str engthen the fr iendship between both par ties of Muslim and non-Muslim ties. Ther efor e, celebr ating other ’s festivals together is par t of the pr ocess of dialogue of life in Malaysian style. It is not only by encounter ing the other s have given them a chance to closely k now each other , but also a platfor m to build loving r elationships acr oss the r eligious boundar ies.
Besides that, the celebr ation is most obviously seen dur ing the wedding cer emony par ticular ly in the inter mar r iage par ties. The inter mar r iage str engthens not only the family member s of differ ent r aces and r eligions but also enhances the close r elationship between the tw o par ties. Lindenber g (2009) said that inter mar r iage is seen as a positive sign of har monious r elations between differ ent ethnic gr oups. It is also explained by Jones (2009) w ho said that inter -r eligious mar r iage is an impor tant indicator of good r elations between communities in r eligiously diver se countr ies. The inter mar r iage br ings member s of differ ent r eligions to meet, inter act and live together under one family. This encour ages them to k now each other not only k now ing the names but also the customs and r eligious pr actices. Smith (2007) states that getting-to-know the other s is a method of dialogue of life in building br idge between Chr istian-Muslim r elations. It is about know ing the other ; one decides to get mar r ied w ith those w ho ar e differ ent in cultur al and r eligious back gr ounds. This phenomenon is a common pr actice among most of the native people in East Malaysia of Sabah and Sar aw ak.
Fur ther mor e, the element of dialogue of life is obviously seen in the Malaysian diver se community in ever yday business activities. Mar tinez (2008) ar gues that unlik e many other societies, Malaysians have constant, r eal r eminder s that they ar e ar ound someone of a differ ent r eligion fr om differ ent gr oups. They ar e comfor table w ith the element of exposur e and inclusion. In fact Malaysians of differ ent r aces and r eligions wor k together in offices and factor ies, use facilities together , tr avel together on public tr anspor t, take classes together , shop alongside each other , as w ell as buy and sell to each other . This is the way the pr ocess of dialogue of life is applied in ever yday activities in multi-r eligious Malaysian society. They do not only know the other s by name, but also accommodate to the other cultur es and r espect the way the other s’ pr actice of their r eligions. It can be said that the elements of dialogue of life in living together , celebr ating festivals and shar ing activities together ar e the beginning of a new under standing based on a r ecipr ocal w illingness to know and lear n fr om each other .
The Significance of Dialogue of Life for I nter -Religious Relation in Malaysia
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cultur al liter acy, w e mean that the member s of society w ill develop their ability to appr eciate and manage r eligious diver sity in multicultur al society. Osman (2008) states that this new cultur al liter acy is basically concer ned with our capacity to lear n about spir itual tr aditions other than our ow n, to know commonalities that bind all r eligions together and differ ences that set them apar t. Mor eover , the new cultur al liter acy is also about having the r ight attitudes towar d both commonalities and differ ences. Ther efor e, the dialogue of life as pr acticed by the Malaysian diver se community to live together , to celebr ate other ’s festivals and to mix ar ound w ith those w ho ar e differ ent in r eligious backgr ound, ar e par t of the way to cr eate cultur al liter acy and build br idges to the other s.
The significance of dialogue in br idging the gap and r ectifying the human r elation is fur ther discussed by Ber ghout (2008), w her e he said that it is thr ough dialogue that one can know the causes and r easons of the br eakdow n in human r elations and communications. He fur ther continues that it is thr ough open, fr ee and sincer e dialogue that people can know w hat went wr ong in their cour se of actions. It is only thr ough just and r esponsible dialogue that human pr oblems can be tackled efficiently and human wisdom can be shar ed and disseminated. Ther efor e, pr omoting dialogue of life at the local level is designed to encour age peaceful co-existence in multi-r eligious and multi-ethnic society and to wor k har moniously among them. Malaysia needs such kind of dialogue so that the people know the other s w ell and lear n to shar e the commonalities together and to r espect the differ ences.
As a conclusion, it is fir mly str essed that the dialogue of life is not just to descr ibe the conceptual meaning of inter -r eligious dialogue at the gr ass r oots level. Rather , it is a dialogue to encour age positive r elation to the people of differ ent r eligions. It is because the dialogue of life pr omotes the people to integr ate and inter mingle w ith the other s in ever yday activities as they fr equently encounter and inter act w ith each other at any place and any time. The pr ocess of dialogue of life in Malaysia is obviously seen in the mix-faith family of Muslim conver ts and the study show s that the member s of the family ar e w illing to live together under one r oof. The pr ocess can also be seen in the celebr ation of festive seasons together , wher e they have a meal and sit together as fr iends and r elatives. Fur ther mor e, the dialogue of life in ever yday business is a r outine for the people of all r aces and r eligions in Malaysia. The differ ences in r eligions do not make them feel isolated and hesitate to mix ar ound w ith the other s. In fact, the dialogical pr ocess thr ough the pr ocess of daily live inter action will over come pr ejudice and misunder standing of the other . Ther efor e, the dialogue of life is significant for engaging the quest to impr ove human community and encour ages people to coexist in har mony.
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i It is a challenge to address some of the so-called “sensitive issues” that impinge upon inter-religious ties.
One of the sensitive issues is the issue of conversion since it lies on the principle of religious freedom and the right of a person to join or leave a faith without coercion or compulsion.
ii
It was described by Chandra (2010) among the reasons why the Malays choose to accommodate the non-Malays are because the Malay elite realized that if they were not accommodated in one way or other there could be considerable social instability. They believed that the Chinese and Indians were crucial to some of the most important areas of the economy –rubber, tin and trade. It is also because of the communist threat that influence the response of the Malay elite to the question of non-Malay citizenship. Other than that, the Malay elite sees that it was not averse to accommodating the non-Malays. It was prepare to grant them citizenship provided it did not lead to the annihilation of the Malays themselves in their own homeland.
iii Parliamentary dialogue refers to large assemblies created for interfaith discussion. The earliest example
was the World Parliament of Religion convened in Chicago in 1893. This type of meetings have become more frequent under the auspices of multi-faith organizations such as the World Conference on Religion and Peace and theBritish-based World Congress of Faiths.
iv Institutional dialogue indludes both the organized efforts by particular religious institutions, and in
Southeast Asia, governments of nations that initiate and facilitate various kinds of dialogue. This type of dialogue seeks to establish and nurture channels of communication between various religious communities. This category encompasses much of the work carried out through the World Council of Churches (WCC) and the Vatican, the World Council of Muslims for Inter-religious Relations and others.
v A theological dialogue refers to particular elements found in interfaith encounter as well as the larger
process of reflection among Muslims, Jews, Christians, Buddhists, Hindus and others. It includes structured meetings in which theological and philosophical issues are the primary focus of discussion.
vi Spiritual dialogue concerns with deepening spiritual life through interfaith encounter. This type of
dialogue does not struggle overtly with theological problems or issues between communities of faith. Rather, it is designed as a means to nourish, expand and develop spirituality or the spiritual dimension of religious life.
vii
Inner dialogue takes place in each of us. It operates in various dialogical encounters as well as in our process of thinking and reflection. It is intimately bound up with growth and change in the development of one’s religious perspectives. It takes place in our minds and hearts when we read the scriptures of another religious tradition, or when we hear their call to prayer.
viii Dialogue of cooperation takes place as religious people commit to work on projects or address issues of
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challenges. Organizations of Muslim women, such as Sisters United in humanity are often supportive of community-based initiatives by interfaith partners where there is mutual trust (Haney, 2009).
ix This type of dialogue is centered on an exchange or participation with regard to religious experience. For
example, attending celebrations of birth, marriage, funeral. The other adherents show respect for what the other person regards as sacred (Haney, 2009)
x It is important for several reasons. It supports the understanding and transmission of knowledge related to
aspects of religious faith and also reveals an interpretation of what it means to live the faith at a deeper level. It also provides a public experience by which interfaith and interpersonal reflections are discussed in such a way that their social and theological importance and impact become clearer. Muslims are more attentive to this form of dialogue, which they consider to have a political and witness value. This form of interfaith and interreligious dialogue is most popular at universities with religiously diverse populations, interfaith offices and divisions within religious and social institutions where many cultures are represented, as well as among public interfaith affiliations and associations (Haney, 2009)
xi This kind of dialogue can be seen in the work of Imam Mohammed, a former leader of the Nation of
Islam (NOI) in U.S. He was the son of the honorable Elijah Muhammad, founder of the Nation of Islam. Imam Mohammed has served not only as an active participant in official dialogues sponsored by religious authorities (Jewish, Catholic and Protestant), but has himself officialy initiated such dialogue; he participated in dialogue promoted by the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, the World Council of Churches and several mainstream U.S. Protestant denominations. Long before his death, Imam Mohammed had been in discussion with Muslims and the Presbyterian ch (USA) and together they had identified the need for a four-year interfaith process that would bring together Presbyterian Christians and American Muslims (Haney, 2009).
xii Ghazali (2005) notes that the early history of Malaysia affirms the experience of interaction with people
