Public policies creating tensions in Montado management models: insights from farmers’ representations

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ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect

Land

Use

Policy

j ou rn a l h om ep a ge : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / l a n d u s e p o l

Public

policies

creating

tensions

in

Montado

management

models:

Insights

from

farmers’

representations

Teresa

Pinto-Correia

∗

,

Carla

Azeda

ICAAM–InstitutodeCiênciasAgráriaseAmbientaisMediterrânicas,UniversidadedeÉvora,PólodaMitra,Ap.94,7002-554Évora,Portugal

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t

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f

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Articlehistory:

Received25February2016

Receivedinrevisedform19February2017 Accepted22February2017

Availableonline1March2017 Keywords: Montado Management Decay Representations Farmers Conﬂicts

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TheMontadoisthesilvo-pastorallandusesystemdominantinSouthernPortugal,andsimilartothe DehesainSouthernSpain.Thesesystemscombineanopentreecoverofcorkandholmoakswithgrazing intheunder-cover.Despitetheacknowledgedvalueofthesesystemsduetotheiradaptationtothe scarcitybiophysicalconditionsofSouthernIberia,theuniquenessofcorkproduction,thebiodiversity valuesandthesupportofmultiplepublicgoodsandservices,inPortugaltheareaoftheMontadois decliningeveryyear.Ithasbeenshownbeforehowthisdeclineisrelatedtoincreasedgrazingpressure anduseofinadequatesoilmobilizationtechniques.Supportedonsocialsciencestheoreticalinsights, thispaperfocusonthefarmersdecisionprocess,andtherepresentationsthatsupporttheirdecisions. Theanalysisisgroundedonalargescalesurveyfollowedbyin-depthinterviewstoMontadofarmers. TheresultsshowthatthereisanunderlyingconﬂictbetweenfarmersrepresentationoftheMontado andthepracticestheyareapplyingintheireverydaymanagement.Dominantrepresentationsofthe Montadobyfarmersrelystronglyonthetreecoverandtheforestrycomponentofthesystem.While theirmanagementisstronglyfocusedonthelivestockandgrazingresources.Farmersareabandoninga resilientthinkingoftheirfarmsystemconsideringthefactorsinternaltothesystem,toadaptanexternal, driverorientedrepresentationoftheirfarmsystem.CAPcoupledpaymentsareseenasthemaincause ofthischange.Ifthepolicyconstructionremainsinitspresentstate,theresilienceoftheMontadoasa complexsocio-ecologicalsystemisthreatenedintheveryshortterm.

1. Introduction

The Montado is the silvo-pastoral system dominant in the landscapeofsouthernPortugal,andequivalenttotheDehesain southernSpain.Theselandusesystemsoccupyapproximately1M hectaresinPortugaland 3MhectaresinSpain,constitutingthe paradigmaticlandusesystemsandlandscapesofsouthernIberia (Aronsonetal.,2009;Ferraz-de-Oliveiraetal.,2016;Pinto-Correia, 1993;Pinto-Correiaetal.,2011).IntheMontado,thereisatree coverdominatedbyevergreenoaks,mostlycorkoak(Quercussuber L.,1753)invaryingdensities,andpasturesintheundercover.These maybenaturalorimprovedpastures,andoftenthereisdispersed shruborpatchesofshrubinthemostnon-accessiblepatches.The livestockfeedonthepasturesandalsoproﬁtfromthemastsand acorns,aswellastheyoungtreeshoots.Inthedryseason, live-stockfoddermayalsobeproducedinother,moreopenplotsinthe farm.InabalancedMontado,thegrazingpressureissuchthatthe

∗ Correspondingauthor.

E-mailaddress:mtpc@uevora.pt(T.Pinto-Correia).

encroachingshrubisavoidedandnaturalregenerationofthetrees ispossible.

Despite its adaptation to the scarce natural resources and variability of theclimate, itsacknowledged qualities as a High NatureValuefarmingsystem,a highlyattractivelandscape,and aregionalidentityfundament,thesesystemsareneverthelessin decay.RecentstudieshaveshownthattheMontado’stotal exten-sionhasreducedinthelast25years,with5000halostonaverage per year (Costa et al., 2011; Godinho et al., 2014, 2016).This decreaseisnotprimarilyduetocutsinthetreecoveror replace-mentofthesilvo-pastoralsystembyanotherlandusesystem.Itis causedbyaprogressivedeclineinthetreecoverandareduction innaturaltreeregeneration,andthusareductionintreedensity, which in turnleads tolargerand larger openings inthe Mon-tadolandcover(Almeidaetal.,2013;Godinhoetal.,2014,2016). Whenthetreesaremissingorintoolowdensity,thereisanopen grazingorshrubarea,butthecomplementaritybetweengrazing activitiesandthetreelayerislost,andtheMontadohasbeen dis-mantledasasilvo-pastoralsystem.Consequently,itisdifﬁcultto maintaintherecoveryofthetreecover,whichtraditionally regen-eratedbynaturalreplacementoftheoldtreesbyyoungshoots http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.02.029

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(AcácioandHolmgren,2012).Withoutthetreecoverthereisno Montadoandtheconstraintsimposedbythenaturalenvironment areastronglimitingfactorforotherregenerationactionsorfor otheruses.Asithasbeenprovedinothersituationsthroughout theworld,thedegradationofforestecosystemsduetotreecover lossandfragmentationhaslong-lastingandnegative environmen-talconsequences,suchasspeciesextinction,waterandsoilquality degradation,and invasive species, and istherefore a subject of upmostconcerninterms ofpublicpolicy(HartelandPlieninger 2014;Liuetal.,2016).

Previousstudieshaveshownhowthetrendtowardsan intensi-ficationandspecializationoflivestockproductionintheMontado iscloselyrelatedtothedecayofthetreecanopyinthegrazing areas,andthusthedeclineof thesystem(Godinhoet al.,2014, 2016;Morenoetal.,2014).Evenifotherfactorsalsoplayedarole, theCommonAgriculturalPolicy(CAP)anditsspecificapplication toPortugalhavebeenseenasthemaindriverforthis intensifica-tioninthelasttwodecades:livestockpaymentshaveremained coupledtothetotalnumberofanimalsandcattlepaymentshave progressivelyincreasedwhilesheeppaymentsarekeptratherlow (Almeidaetal.,2013;Guerraetal.,2015;Guerraetal.,2014).There arethusdifferentandsimultaneouschangeswhichcontributeto increasedpressuresonthetreecoverandonthegrazingresources intheMontado:replacementofsheepbycattle,replacementof lightindigenousbreedsofcattlebyheavierbreeds,increaseinthe numberofcattleheads,andshrubcontrolpracticesusingheavy machinery.Whiletheformerleadtoexhaustionofthenatural pas-tures,disappearanceoftheyoungtreeshoots,damagetotheyoung trees,andsoilcompaction,thelatteraffectsthesystemasitleads mainlytosevere damageto thetreeroot system.Thenational discoursewithinthefarmingsector,followingthespecialization paradigm,hascontributedtowardsreinforcingtheintensification effectdrivenbytheCAP(Fragosoetal.,2011;Pinto-Correiaand Godinho,2013).

Nevertheless,analysesoftheprocessesofchangeinlanduse and landscapesciences tell usthat policies and sector orienta-tionsdonotdirectlyaffectthelandscapeorlanduse;theyaffect thefarmers,whotakedecisionsthataffectandaltersaidlanduse andlandscape.Inordertounderstandhowpoliciesaffectthefarm and interplaywith otherfactors,the analysisneedsto empha-sizetheroleofthefarmer(HerzfeldandJongeneel,2012).Farmers takedecisionsaccordingtoacomplexvaluesystemand manage-mentstrategy.Therefore,thefarmsystemsapproachconsidersthe farmas aunit composedofthefarmerand hismentalmodels, preferences,goals,abilities,etc.,andthephysicalfarm,witha vari-etyofsubsystemsthatincludeanimals,crops,buildings,ﬁnances, etc.(Darnhoferetal.,2012;Milestadetal.,2012).Thetheoretical backgrounddevelopedbysocialsciencesonfarmsystemshelps ustounderstandthepositioningofthefarmer,orlandmanager, inthecomplex systemof hisorherfarm anddealing withthe institutionalframeworktowhichhe/sheissubject(Cochet,2012; Schermeretal.,2016;HerzfeldandJongeneel,2012;Noeetal., 2008).Thus,understandingprocessesofchangeincomplexland usesystems suchas theMontado,which ultimately alsoaffect thelandscape,requiresanin-depthunderstandingofthefarmer’s decision-makingprocesses(Darnhoferetal.,2012).

Thisiswhatthispaperisabout.Thegoalofthepaperistobring forwardananalysisofthedecision-makingprocesscharacteristics ofMontadolandownerstoday.Thepaperaimstoshedlightonthe differentrepresentationsthatthelandownershaveofthissystem andtheexistingconvergence,butalsoconﬂict,betweentheirvalue setandactions,ultimatelyconstitutingaframeworkforthe difﬁ-cultconservationofabalancedMontado.Inordertoaddressthese issues,thepaperisbasedonanempiricalanalysisundertakenin centralAlentejo,inthemunicipalityofMontemor-o-Novo,where

theMontadostillcomprises60%ofthemunicipality’stotalutilized agriculturalarea.

2. Materialandmethods 2.1. Thecase-study

LocatedintheregionofAlentejo(SouthernPortugal),withan areaof1,232.1km2_and_a_population_density_of_15.1_hab/km2_,_the

conditionsin themunicipalityof Montemor-o-Novo(Fig.1)are generallyfavourabletosilvo-pastoral production.Theclimateis typicallyMediterranean,withmarkeddifferencesbetweenthedry seasonandtherainyseasontemperatureranges.However,dueto themunicipality’slocation,less than100kmfromthecoastline, thereishighprecipitationandmildtemperaturescomparedwith southernPortugalasawhole.Likewise,thereisapredominance ofgranitemother-rockandrelativelydeepsoilsincomparisonto theaverageinAlentejo.Despitethepresenceofsigniﬁcantrugged surfaceareas,thelandscapeisdominatedbyplains.

AsinthewholeofAlentejo,theMontadofarmsaremainly large-scale,family-ownedestatesbetween100and1000ha,andinsome casesbetween50and100ha.TheMontadorarelycoversthetotal areaofthefarm,thoughitusuallycoversthelargestpart−the remainingopenpastures−whicharealsousedforthelivestock production.Usually,thisprimaryactivityiscombinedwithcork andwoodproduction,aswellaswithannualcropsusedforforage. AsatestamenttothehighnaturevalueofmanyoftheMontado areas,themunicipalitylandpartiallyfallsundertwoNature2000 sites:Cabrela(15%ofthemunicipality)andMonfurado(13%ofthe municipality).

Most frequently, farmers have inherited the farm as direct successors or through marriage. In some cases the land has been boughtrecently or is leased fromthe traditional owners. Montemor-o-NovoisthemunicipalityinPortugalwiththe high-estproportionoffarmerswithauniversitydegree,andalsoamore favourabledemographicdistributionthanthePortugueseaverage: 40%ofthefarmersareover65yearsold,whileatthenationallevel thisrateis52%.Thisproﬁleofmoreeducatedandyoungerfarmers thanthenationalaveragecanbeexplainedbyacombinationof fac-tors,buttheproximityofthemetropolitanareaofLisbon(100km) surely contributestothehigher capacityof themunicipalityto attractandmaintainyoungerandwell-educatedfamilies. 2.2. Methods

Theanalysisisbasedonin-depthinterviewswithselected Mon-tadofarmersinthemunicipalityofMontemor-o-Novo.

Priortotheseinterviews,inafirststepoftheanalysis,adetailed surveyofthefarms’andfarmers’ characteristicswasappliedto arepresentativesampleofthefarmsinthemunicipality.Froma totalof865farmunitsinthemunicipality,328havemorethan 50ha,andarethuslikelytobeMontadofarmsorfarmswherethe Montadolandcoverissignificant.Inthefirststep,51oftheselarge farmunits,spatiallydistributedinthewholemunicipalityterritory, weresurveyed.

Theﬁrststepsurveyconcernedfarmandfarmer characteris-tics,farmermanagement options andhis/her attitudes towards farming,theenvironment,themarketandpublicpolicy.Acluster analysisoftheresultshasledtotheidentiﬁcationofthreetypes of Montadofarmers:1)productivist livestockfarmers (58%), 2) entrepreneurcattlefarmers(35%),and3)multifunctional innova-tive(7%)(Almeidaetal.,2013;BarrosoandPinto-Correia,2014). Theproductivist livestockfarmersaremainlyfull-timefarmers, highlyfocusedonincreasingproduction andthereby increasing theirincome,highlydeterminedbytheCAPpaymentsofthe1st

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Fig.1.LocationoftheMontemor-o-Novomunicipality.ThemunicipalityislocatedinthecentralAlnetjoregion,100kmfromthemetropolitanareaofLisboa,anditincludes largeareasoftwoNatura2000sites:MonfuradoandCabrela.

Pillar.Theentrepreneurcattlefarmersarealsofull-timefarmers, whointroduceinnovativepracticestothefarm,suchas convert-ingtheextensivecattleproductiontoorganics,forexample;they receiveboth1stand2ndPillarpayments.Themultifunctional inno-vativegroupmayhaveotherjobsbesidesfarmingand,inanycase, haveotherincomesources.Themainincomesourceinthefarmis relatedwithotheractivities,suchashuntingortourism,andcattle productionisnotthemainpriority.Manyofthemreceiveno pay-ments,orwhentheydo,theyare2ndPillarpayments.Onlyinthe lasttype,whichisbyfartheleastfrequent,istheaveragegrazing pressureintheMontadobelowwhatpreviousstudieshaveshown tobeassociatedwiththetreecoverdecline(Godinhoetal.,2014, 2016;Almeidaetal.,2015).

Fromthose51farmers,andfollowingtherelativedistribution inthetypology,15farmerswereselectedfora semi-structured interviewinasecondstep:8oftype1),6oftype2)andoneoftype 3).Twoofthesearewomen,theothersaremen.Theirproﬁleand thefarmcharacteristicswereknownbeforehandfromthesurvey data.Theinterviewaddressedquestionsaimingtounderstandthe farmers’viewpoints:a)opinionregardingthetypologyproduced anditsaccuracywithrespecttothemselvesandthefarmersthey know;b)representationoftheMontado;c)requirementsforthe sustainablemanagementoftheMontado;d)ownmanagementand futureperspectives;e)theroleoftheCAP,presentorientationsand proposalsforrequiredchanges.

Thefarmershavebeeninterviewedintheirhomes,attheirfarm oralocationtheyhaveselected,allbythesameinterviewer.The interviewslastedbetween1h30and3h,andwererecorded.Afull transcriptionofeachinterviewwasmade.

Theinterview’stranscriptionshavebeenanalyzedfollowinga discourseanalysisapproach(Antaki2008;Hyvarinen2008). Dis-courseanalysisaimstoreveal,andsometimesunmask,thepersonal meaning-makingof thosebeingfocused on, throughthe analy-sis of what is explicitly said but also of what remains unsaid. In the present case, the analysis wasbased on a careful read-ingandinterpretationoftheinterviewtranscriptions,inorderto extractthecentralthemesandrepertoiresinthefarmers’discourse, andthustouncovertheunderlyingdimensionsamongwhichthe intervieweemadesenseofhis/herexperiencesandactions. Dis-courseanalysiscanbeusedindifferentperspectives.Hereweused theperspectiveofconsideringdiscourseasaframeofreference: anorganizedsetofsocialrepresentations,throughwhichpeople understand,explainandarticulatethecomplexsocialandphysical environmentinwhichtheyareimmersed(Hermansetal.,2012).

Insightsfromsocialsciencestheoryhavesupportedthis analy-sis,astheaimwastolookparticularlyintothesocialcomponentof farmmanagementandunderstandfarmers’representations,values andmotivations,aswellastheirinteractionwiththeir manage-mentpractices (Godinhoet al.,2014,2016).Theactor network theory(ATN)hasbeenparticularlysupportive,asitemphasizesand considersallsurroundingfactors—recognizingthatnooneacts alone.ATNprovidestheconceptualframeworkforunderstanding howfarmsareorganizedandhowdecisionsaremade, consider-ingtheextremelyheterogeneouscombinationofnatural,technical, economicandsocialelementsandinteractionsthatcomposeafarm anditssurroundingcontext(EgonandAlroe2012).ATN’sstrength isthatitfocusesonrelationshipsandprovidesageneralandopen understandingof the relationalstructure of farm systems,

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tak-ingintoconsiderationbothinternalandexternalfactors(Milestad etal.,2012).In thiscase, lookingatfarmers’representationsas driversoftheirmanagementoptions,ATNhassupportedinsights intothecontextandcomplexinteractions,whichmayinﬂuence theserepresentations.

3. Results:contradictionsinfarmers’statedvaluesand actions

Withregardtothefarmers’typology,theintervieweesgenerally agreedwiththetypesdescribed,andalsowiththetypetheywere includedin.Somesaidtheycorrespondedtothetypeinwhichthey wereincluded,butcombinedwithanotherone.Farmersclassified asproductivist livestockfarmerstendtostatethatallMontado farmerstheyknowareinthesametype,andthatintensification istheonlywaytomaintainaMontadofarm.However,somefound itdifficulttoplaceotherfarmerstheyknowintoonesingle cate-goryandclaimedthatineachfarmer’sstrategythereisanelement ofeachofthethreetypes.

Onehighlyrevealingaspectisthattheperceptionofthe Mon-tadoisverymuchconsensual,withthedeterminingcharacteristic beingthetrees.Formany,thefirstreactionto“Howwouldyou definetheMontado?”was“theMontadoisthetrees”or“the Mon-tadoistrees”,or“aforest”,“aMediterraneanforest”.Somemention thetypeoftrees,corkandholmoaks(QuercussuberandQuercus rotundifolia),aswellascorkproduction.Oneevensays“The Mon-tadoiscork”.Onlyafewtalkhereaboutthegrazinganimals,and whentheydo,theyrefertoaforestsystemwithmultiple associ-atedcomponents,theanimalsbeingtheIberianpigorsheep.Five ofthesefarmersalsorefertotheMontadoasheritage,anidentity landscape,andaniconicvalueofAlentejoandevenofthecountry asawhole.Butbesidesthesefive,othersreferheretothesocietal obligationtomaintaintheMontado:“weneedtokeepit,asmuch aspossible,itisourrole”,or“weallhavetopreserveit”,“wehave theobligationtopreserveit”,“wecannotletitdie”.TheMontadois thusseenasaforest-basedsystem,closelylinkedtothe produc-tionofcorkandthecorrespondingincomegeneration,andalsoas auniqueandvaluableheritage.

Inlinewiththisrepresentation,clearlycentredinthetrees,the sustainablemanagementoftheMontadoisclearlydeﬁnedas man-agementwherethemaintenanceofthetreesisacentralgoal.As oneofthefarmersexpressed, “thecrucialfactoristounderstand the tree”, and another: “thegoal istotake care of andmaintain thetrees”.Manyrefertotheneedtosafeguardthetreecoverby avoidingdeepploughing,plantingnewtreesandprovidingthem withwater duringtheinitialsummers,andalsoavoidingshrub encroachment,whichisseenascompetingforresourceswiththe trees.Thus,acleanMontado,withnoshrubintheundercover,is associatedwithasustainableMontado.Furthermore,thenotionof abalanceduseoftheexistingresources,throughcontinuous adap-tivemanagement,ismuchpresent.Mostofthoseinterviewedrefer totheneedtomaintainabalancebetweentheconditionsofthe Montado,andthusitscarryingcapacity,andtheinterventionsfor pastureimprovement,ontheonehand,andgrazingintensityand breedontheother.Afewfarmersrefertotheneedtofertilizeand improvethepasturessothatmoreplantmaterialisavailablefor livestock,butalsosothatthetreesarefertilized.Othersdefendlow livestockdensities,andgenerallyavoidingcattle,orevenmanaging thetreeswithoutlivestock.Inthislastcase,suchopinionisnotin thesenseoffarmmanagementwithnootheractivitybesidesthe forest;itismoreinthesenseofsettingasidehigh-qualityMontado areasasconservationpatches,preservedasforestsystems,within largerfarmunitswheremostoftheareaisdedicatedtoagricultural production,beitlivestockgrazingorother.

Furthermore,whenaskedaboutthesustainablemanagementof theMontado,therearefrequentreferencestounbalanced manage-mentstrategies,whereseriousmistakeshavebeenmade(excessive grazingpressureorexcessivelydeepploughing),inthepast.Several farmerscitetheformerlackofknowledgeandbeliefin rationaliza-tionandmechanizationasthemaincause.Thesearereferences toaperiod aftertheRevolutionin the‘70sand theconsequent cooperativemanagementofmanylargeestatesforafewyears, fol-lowedbytheintegrationofPortugalintotheEuropeanUnion.The previousperiod,uptothe1970s,isseenasaperiodofwise manage-ment,wherecattlewouldnotbeacceptedintheMontado,shrub controlwasmainlyundertakenmanuallyandsoilploughingwith heavymachinerywasstillaseldompractice.Asforthepresent, manyclaimthereisaneedformuchmoretrainingand informa-tioninordertoachievemoresustainablemanagement,butsome alsoclaimthereisnowgenerallybetterinformationandeducation forfarmers,andthereforewisermanagementtoday.

Then,whenaskedabouttheirpersonalmanagementofthe Mon-tadotoday,thefocusismuchdifferent.Mostrepliesdealwiththe livestock:grazingmanagement,theimprovementofpastures, live-stockcomposition,feedingrequirementsandworryingcostslinked tothepurchaseoffodderoutsidethefarm.Thedominantlivestock iscattle.Onlythreeoftheﬁfteenfarmershaveonlysheepas live-stockintheirMontadofarm.Onehassheepformilk,whiletheother twohavesheepformeat.Alltheremainingfarmshavecattle,of dif-ferentbreeds,oftenmorethanonebreed(pureormixed),andin somecasescombinedwithsheep.Onefarmerhasdairycows,but alsoextensivemeatcattleinthesamefarmunit.

Thecapacity ofthepasturestofeedtheanimalsis acentral concern.Theperiodthelivestockremainsonthepasturesandthe needtoprovideextrafodderattheendofthedryseasonisthe mainissue.Thecapacitytoproducethisextrafodderinotherareas insidethefarm,andthereforetobeindependentfromimported fodder,isageneralgoal.Thosewhodonothavethiscapacityare concernedabouttheirexternaldependencyand,hence,their vul-nerabilityinthedryyears.Therefore,theyaimtoincreasetheir fodderproductioncapacity,forexamplebyincreasingirrigation areas(throughpivots).Someofthefarmersrefertopracticesfor improvingthepastures.Having different paddocksand moving theanimalsfrequentlyinordertomakeabetteruseofthe pas-turesisalsomentioned.Yetonceagainthecentralconcernisthe mostrationalandeconomicalwayoffeedingtheanimals,andnot treecoversurvival.Severalfarmersmentionedeconomic rational-ityandeconomicsustainabilityastheirmanagementgoal,oreven astheonlypossiblegoal:“environmentalsustainabilityisreally won-derfulbutifthereisnoeconomicsustainabilitythenthereisnofuture”, or“onlywhenyouhaveanotherincomesourceandtheMontadois managedasanamenitycanthebalanceofthewholesystembethe priority”.Inthisway,theyjustifytheneedtomaintaincattleinthe Montado:withthepresentCAPconstructionandthehighcoupled paymentsforcattle,maintainingintensivecattleproductionisseen astheobviouseconomicrationality.

Generally,inresponsetoquestionsabouttheircurrent manage-ment,thereisnoreferencetothetreecover.Thisdiscrepancyin relationtothepreviousstatementsabouttheMontado’sdeﬁnition andsustainablemanagementishighlysigniﬁcant.Onefarmer,who statedthatthesustainablemanagementoftheMontadorelieson thecarefulunderstandingoftreebehaviouranddetailedattention tocorkproductionovertime,saysofhisownmanagement:“cattle istheabsolutepriority;corkandforestryproductsaresub-productsof theMontado”.Sheepproducersmentionthattheychoosethistype ofanimalbecausetheylikeitmostorbecauseofexpectationsof highincome(inthecaseofdairysheep),butalsobecauseoftheir betteradaptationtothemaintenanceofthetreecover.

Amongthosewhohavecattle,onlytwofarmersrefertotree covermaintenanceasacentralissue.Theycorrespondtothe

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minor-itywithinthetypologyproducedinthefirststepoftheanalysis: multifunctionalfarmers.Theyaretheoneclassifiedasa multifunc-tionalmanagerand anotherclassifiedasanentrepreneurcattle farmerwhoseeshimselfmoreasamultifunctionalmanager.They promotemanagementpracticeswherethebalanceandrenewalof thetreecoverisonerequirement,boththroughlowgrazing densi-ties,theproductionoffodderinsidethefarm,andthepreservation ofMontadoareasfromcattlegrazing.

Infact,thesetwofarmerstendtoseparatecattleproduction fromtheMontado,focusingonothergrazingspecies−sheepand Iberianpigs−intheMontadoandkeepingthecattlemostlyoutside orinselectedareas,withverylowdensity.Amongtheremaining cattleproducers,somealsomentionthattheykeepcertain Mon-tadoareasclearfromgrazingorhaveevenplantednewtreesto increasedensity.However,thesearefarfromthecentral manage-mentconcernsandsomehowrevealatrendforconsideringthe Montadotobeingoodstandandhavehightreedensity,asa resid-ualpartofthefarm.Onefarmer,forinstance,referstohisplantation ofnewtreesasanexpressionofhiscarefortheMontado;yethe hasplanted40outofatotalof700ha.

Thisreducedreferencetothetreesismoststrikingconsidering thatcorkproduction,whosequantityandqualitydependsdirectly onthegoodconditionofthetreecover,isinmanycasesconsidered asanimportantincomeandpartofthelong-termmanagement strategyofthefarm,asexpressedintheﬁrststepinquirytothese farmers.Corkisonlyextractedeverynineyearsfromeachsingle treeandnormallyalltreesinafarmunitareharvestedinoneortwo differentyearssothattherequiredworkinvestmentandincome aregathered.Therefore,theincomefromcorkissigniﬁcantbut notonaregularyearbasis,andwasmentionedintheinterviews ascoveringtheneededlargeinvestmentstocontinuethefarm’s livestockproduction,aswellasmaintainirrigationinfrastructures, buildingsandfences.

InrelationtotheCAP,thejudgementisverysimilaramongall farmers:theCAPpaymentsdrivetheintensificationofthe Mon-tadoandexcessivecattledensityintheundercover,andaresolely responsibleforthistrend.ThoseinterviewedrefertotheCAP influ-enceasakindoffatality:“theincentiveforcattleproductionisclearly damagingtheMontadoandalotofwhatwearedoingisnonsense, butthereisnootherpossibility;aslongascowsareprofitable,wewill continuetohavecows”;“ifwedonotconsiderwhatgivesusaregular yearlyincome,thenwecannotsurvive”.AndtheCAPmechanisms areseenasleadingthefarmerstofocusonlyonincome:“alotof farmersonlyaimtotakethehighestincomeoutoftheMontado,and thereforetheyhavecows;theydonotevenlikecowsortreatthem well,theyjustwanttoearnmoney”;“Montadoownersknowtoolittle anddonotknowwhatisbest;theylivetoofas,andneedtoobtaina lotofmoneyfromtheirfarms”.

Only a few of the interviewed farmers mention the agri-environmental schemes as relevant payments for them. For instance,concerningthesupportforautochthonouscattlebreeds, whicharelighterandlessdemandingandthereforeless impact-ingontheMontado,theagri-environmentalpaymentisconsidered “ridiculous”inrelationto thelowerincome generated bythese breedsinthemarket.Themajorityoffarmersrefersolelytotheﬁrst pillarpayments.Askedabouthowtheirpracticeswouldchangeif theCAPpaymentstheyreceiveweremaintainedbutnotcoupled tothecattleheads,thereactionisalsoquitehomogeneous:the cattledensitywouldbesubstantiallyreducedandcattlewouldbe progressivelyreplacedbysheep,atleastpartially.Afewfarmers defendtheircurrentpracticebystatingtheywouldnotchange any-thingintheirmanagement.Butwhenaskedaboutwhattheythink wouldshouldbechangedintheCAP,theyclearlyrefertoa replace-mentofthepresentpaymentmechanismsbyothersthataremore respectfulofthewholeMontadosystemandthebalancebetween grazingactivitiesandthetreecover.

Itisobviousthat,asinmostotherfarmsystemsinEurope,a sig-niﬁcantpartofthefarms’incomeisdependentonCAPpayments andthesystemisbuiltwiththesepaymentsasastructuringfactor. Thisisnotunique.Butwhatisparticularinthecaseofthe Mon-tadoisthatallfarmersinterviewedacknowledgemainlynegative impactsresultingfromthemannerinwhichtheCAPfunctionsand wouldoptforotherpracticesandproductsiftheschemeswere structureddifferently.

4. Discussion:farmersinadifﬁcultquandary

Thereis a fundamental conflict emerging fromthe analysis, betweentherepresentationthefarmershaveoftheMontado,and theirrepresentationofwhattheirownMontadomanagementis about.TherepresentationoftheMontadoisstronglyfocusedon thetreecomponent,ontheMontadosystemasaforestrysystem withwhichcattlegrazingisassociated.Alltheintervieweesclearly feelthatthesustainabilityoftheMontadoiscentredonthe preser-vationofthetrees.Nevertheless,currentmanagementispresented astotallycentredonlivestockmanagementandtheeconomic ratio-nalebehindthebalancebetweenlivestockintensityand fodder availability.Thetreesseemtohavedisappearedfromthefarmers thoughtsamidthesemanagementconcerns.Thisisthecaseeven though,inthefirststepenquiry,manymentionedthecorkincome asasignificantpartoftheeconomicrationalityofthefarm.In live-stockgrazingsystems,efficientstockfeedmanagementisalways criticaltoafarm’ssuccess(Nuthall2012).Inthecaseofthe Mon-tado,withthelimitedproductivecapacityofAlentejosoils,together withthecharacteristicinter-annualfluctuationsofthe Mediter-raneanclimate,adaptiveandefficientlivestockmanagementisa crucialfactorinavoidingpotentialovergrazingrisks(Sales-Baptista etal.,2015).Suchmanagementiscomplex,naturallyraising con-cernswithrespecttofarmers’strategymaking.Butwhatisstriking inthediscourseofthefarmersinterviewedisthatthemaintenance ofthetreesisabsentfromthemanagementdescription,whenit isclearlyknownbyallofthemthatgrazingpressureisaffecting bothpastureproductivityandthetrees’standandregeneration, andwhenatthesametimemanyofthemconsidercorktobea significantincomesourcefortheirfarm.

Itseemsthatthereisalong-termview,whichincludesthetrees andtheoverallbalanceofthesystemasaforestrysystemanda producerofcork,oftenconnectedwiththesenseofheritageand identity−theMontadoassomethingvaluablethathasbeenpassed downandwhichthefarmershavearesponsibilitytomaintainfor thefuture.Thenthereisashort-termview,whichisconveniently separatedfromthefirstandinwhichthecentralissueisthe eco-nomicrationalityandtheneedtoobtainasmuchincomefromthe livestockaspossible,takingintoconsideration theconstrainsof thefarm.Thesetwooutlooksareindirectconflictwitheachother. Thisconflictishardlyacknowledgedbythefarmers−theyreflect onthecontradictionsandthetensionscreatedyetpresentthem asinevitabilitieswhicharecurrentlyoutoftheircontrol,thereby keepingpossibleconflictoutsidetheirdecision-makingsphere.In thisway,theyrationalizetheshort-termstrategytheyare follow-ing−whichisonlyaneconomicrationalityandonlyshortterm,on ayearlybasis.Theseparatereferencesandrepresentationsarising fromthetwosetsofquestionsleadsustoformulatethehypothesis that,byseparatingthetwocontradictoryviewsontheMontado inthisway,thefarmersprotectthemselvesfromaconstantinner conflictthatwouldbedifficulttodealwithonadailybasis.

Asdescribedinliterature(Schiereetal.,2012;Milestadetal., 2012;NoeandAlroe2010),thestrategyofthefarmerisnormally toachievecoherenceandclosureinhis/herfarm,inthefaceofthe existingcontextandconsideringthefarmsystemandthenetworks he/sheispartof.Withoutbeingformulatedthisway,thestrategy

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offarmersisoftenguidedbyresiliencethinking,whichisgrounded inknowledgeandintuitionandsupportsfarmssurvival(Darnhofer 2014;Nuthall2012).Butthecentralissueshereseemtoberemoved fromthefarmsystemandplacedonthenetworks,asifthe manage-mentstrategiesweredeﬁnedbyfactorswhicharetotallyoutside thefarm.Thus,whatourempiricalevidenceshowsisthatthefocus offarmmanagementgoalsintheMontadoatpresentisgradually movingfrommaintainingcoherencebetweeninternalprocesses onthefarmandreproduction,thussecuringlong-termresilience, tomanagingrelationswithexternalactors,systems,inputs, rev-enuesandﬁnancial partners.In this way,knowledgeaboutthe Montado’ssensitivebalance,passeddownfromonegenerationto thenextwithinfamiliesandnetworksoffarmers,and establish-inggroundsformanagementintuition(Nuthall2012;Pinto-Correia andGodinho2013),issetaside.Itisnotonlythepresent manage-mentoptionswhicharebiasedbythestrengthofexternalfactors, itisalsothefarmers’comprehensiveknowledgefoundationwhich iseroded.Theresiliencethinkingwhichhasmadethemaintenance oftheMontadopossibleuntilrecently,andwhichisexpressedin farmers’representationoftheMontadoanditssustainability,is keptmerelyasakindofutopia,uselessinpractice.

Anincreasinglydramaticresultofthis processrelatestothe system’sresiliencelimits:beyondacriticalthreshold,treecover regeneration and recovery of the soil becomes impossible and thelong-termdegradationofthebiophysicalconditionsbecomes unavoidable(Schermeretal.,2016;Godinhoetal.,2014,2016).As aresult,thefuturepossibleuseoftheseformerMontadoareasis highlyuncertain.

ThestructureoftheCAP’s1stPillarpaymentsschemes, com-binedwiththeweaknessofthe2ndPillar,arecentraltothisprocess. CAPhasaccumulatedanumberofinternalcontradictionsinrecent years(Beaufoy2014),andalthoughthediscoursehaschanged,the practiceofpolicyimplementationremains focusedonintensive farmingsystems.Previousliteraturehasshowedhowthestructure ofCAPpaymentsappliedtolivestockproductionintheMontado iscreatinginstabilityforfarmers’incomeandaffecting manage-mentstrategies(Godinhoetal.,2014,2016;Fragosoetal.,2011). Thefundamental roleofinstitutionsand policiesinsecuringor erodingfarmsystemsandtheirvaluableoutcomes,besides pro-duction,iswellknownanddescribedinliterature(Schermeretal., 2016).Andinthiscasethereisaclearimpactonthemanagement optionstakenbyfarmers,eveniftheseleadtoadecreaseinthe Montado’sresiliencecapacityandadeclineinwhatthesame farm-ersconsidertobeimportantvalues(heritage,foreststability,cork production).Whatourempiricalmaterialalsoshowsisthatthere isanunderlyingtensiondrivenbythepresentpolicytoolsaffecting theMontado,whichiskeptnon-explicitinfarmers’everyday man-agementpractices.Inordertocopewiththistension,farmersare envisagingtheiroptionsasexternaltothefarmsystemand reduc-ingtheresiliencethinkingwhichwasinherenttotheinternalfarm systemrationale.

5. Concludingremarks

Themostpowerfulpublicpolicyasregardsfarmmanagement inEuropeistheCAP.Initscurrentformatandthewayithasbeen appliedinPortugal,itisdrivingthemanagementoftheMontado systemintospecializedmeatcattleproduction−thuserodingthe complexsustainabilityfoundationswhichtheMontadohas main-taineduntilrecentlyandseverelyaffectingitslong-termresilience. The decay of theMontado area, recorded every yearsince the beginningofthenineties,atteststothisprocess.Itisalso demon-stratingthatthecriticalthreshold,beyondwhichradicalchanges inthissystemtakeplaceandregenerationoftheMontadoismade impossible,hasbeenexceededinmanyplaces.Farmersretaintheir

knowledgeandintuitiononthesensitivityofthesystem,aswell asasenseofheritage,whichcouldformthebasisforthe contin-uedbalancedmanagementofthissystem.Nevertheless,atpresent theyareexternalizingtheMontadomanagementdriversand pur-suingoptionstheydefendwithshort-termeconomicreasoning. Theyarenotacknowledgingtheirresponsibilityforthetrends reg-isteredandthedecayoftheMontadoasasystem.Theyholdup theMontadoasanimageofthepast,orofadesirablefuture−to bemaintainedinlimitedconservationareas,asakindofnature andculturalreserve.Consequently,theydonotsearchfor alterna-tiveandadaptiveoptions.ThemaintenanceoftheMontadoasa forestrysystemisbeingreducedtothepreservationofsmalland well-limitedpatchesoneachfarm.Ifpolicypracticeanddiscourse does not move towards a speciﬁc approach for Mediterranean silvo-pastoralsystems,thepreservationoftheMontadoaswestill observeittodayisalreadyseverelythreatenedintheshortterm. Acknowledgments

Thisworkwaspartiallyfunded bytheproject FCT-PTDC/CS-GEO/110944/2009. Carla Azeda holds an FCT doctoral grant (SFRH/BD/94966/2013). Thisworkwas alsofunded by National FundsthroughtheFCT−FoundationforScienceandTechnology undertheProjectUID/AGR/00115/2013.

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