Discourse and ‘Dem ocracy’:
Some Signals from the South African Corpus of English
1
R o b e r t d e B e a u g ra n d e
U n iv e rs id a d e F e d e r a l d e M in a s G e ra is - F A P E M IG
L in d a P e a rc e W illia m s
U n iv e rs ity o f P o r t E liz a b e th
O d is c u rs o p ú b lic o é re p le to d e te rm o s c u jo s m ú ltip lo s s ig n if ic a d o s d iv e rg e m e m fu n ç ã o d e e s ta re m a s e rv iç o d e d if e re n te s id e o lo g ia s . N o d is c u rs o d a " n o v a Á f r ic a d o S u l", c o m o c o m p ro v a d o n o c o rp u s r e c o lh id o re c e n te m e n te , o te m o "d e m o c ra c ia " p o d e re p r e s e n ta r p e lo m e n o s tr ê s c o n c e p ç õ e s : (1 ) u m a d o u tr in a d e ig u a ld a d e n o s d ir e ito s h u m a n o s e n a s lib e rd a d e s c iv is e p e s s o a is ; (2 ) u m s is te m a d e " n o rm a d e m a io ria " a tra v é s d e u m a e n g e n h a r ia e le ito ra l s e g u ra c o m m ú ltip lo s p a rtid o s e d ir e ito s u n iv e rs a is de v o to ; e (3 ) u m s is te m a d e e m p re s a s liv re s e ig u a ld a d e d e o p o rtu n id a d e s n a e c o n o m ia e n o m e rc a d o de tr a b a lh o . E s ta s c o n c e p ç õ e s sã o to ta lm e n te in c o m p a tív e is , e, c o m o o s d a d o s d e m o n s tra m , a te r c e ir a id é ia e s tá d e s tru in d o a p rim e ir a .
P u b lic d is c o u rs e is re p le te w ith te rm s w h o s e m e a n in g is c o n te s te d in th e se rv ic e o f c o m p e tin g id e o lo g ie s . In th e d is c o u rs e o f th e ‘n e w ’ S o u th A fric a , as a tte s te d b y a re c e n tly c o m p ile d c o rp u s , th e te rm ‘d e m o c r a c y ’ is f o u n d to r e p r e s e n t a t le a s t th r e e c o n c e p tio n s : (1 ) a d o c trin e o f e q u a lity in h u m a n rig h ts a n d in p e r s o n a l a n d c iv il lib e rtie s ; ( 2 ) a p o litic a l s y ste m o f ‘m a jo r ity r u l e ’ b y m e a n s o f a s e c u r e e le c to r a l m a c h in e r y w ith m u ltip le p a rtie s a n d u n iv e rs a l v o tin g rig h ts; a n d (3 ) a n e c o n o m ic s y ste m o f fre e e n te rp ris e a n d e q u a l o p p o rtu n ity in th e e c o n o m y a n d th e j o b m a rk e t. T h e s e a re p la in ly in c o m p a tib le , a n d , a s th e d a ta sh o w , th e th ir d o n e is c u r r e n tly u n d e rm in in g th e firs t.
What large corpora are telling us about ‘language’
A lth o u g h la rg e c o rp o ra h a v e b e e n a v a ila b le fo r o v e r tw e n ty y e a rs, th e ir im p lic a tio n s fo r o u r c o n c e p tio n s a n d th e o rie s o f la n g u a g e h a v e o n ly re c e n tly b e g u n to b e a c k n o w le d g e d . T h is d e la y e d im p a c t h a s b e e n a t le a s t p a rtly d u e to th e te c h n o lo g y : c o rp o ra b e in g still r e la tiv e ly sm a ll a n d th e so ftw a re f o r ta g g in g a n d p a rs in g th e d a ta re la tiv e ly m o d e st. Y e t th e d e la y a lso re fle c ts th e g ra d u a l a n d lo n g -te rm e v o lu tio n in th e d is c ip lin e o f lin g u is tic s its e l f a w a y fro m a so b e rly f o rm a lis tic a n d ‘p u re ly lin g u is tic ’ d e s c rip tio n o f ‘la n g u a g e b y itse lf’ ( S a u s s u re ’s ‘la n g u e ’, C h o m s k y ’s ‘in fin ite se t o f s e n te n c e s ’, e tc .) to w a rd a s o c ia lly d e m o c ra tic a n d e c o lo g ic a lly o rie n te d e x p lo ra tio n o f la n g u a g e a n d d is c o u rs e a t th e c e n tre o f h u m a n p r a c tic e s (se e n o w sy n th e s is in B e a u g ra n d e , 199 7 a). B y u s in g d a ta fro m la rg e c o rp o ra , w e a re n o w fa r b e tte r e q u ip p e d to d is c o v e r a n d in te rp re t th e m u ltip le m o d e s o f e v id e n c e w h ic h m ig h t re n d e r th e lin k b e tw e e n ‘d is c o u r s e ’ a n d ‘d e m o c ra c y ’ a n a c c re d ite d is s u e fo r in v e s tig a tio n . T h is e v id e n c e d e m o n s tr a te s th e ric h in te rc o n n e c te d n e s s o f la n g u a g e w ith th e g e n e ra l a n d sp e c ia l p u rp o s e s o f h u m a n c o m m u n ic a tio n a n d in te ra c tio n , e x te n d in g w e ll b e y o n d th e b o u n d a rie s o f a n y o n e c o n v e n tio n a l d is c ip lin e in s c ie n c e o r e d u c a tio n .
T h is p rin c ip le h a s b e e n w id e ly o v e rlo o k e d b y m o d e rn lin g u is tic s d u e to a c u rio u s d u a lism : e q u a tin g la n g u a g e ( ‘la n g u e ’, ‘s y s te m ’, ‘c o m p e te n c e ’ e tc .) w ith o r d e r , w h ils t e q u a tin g d is c o u r s e ( ‘p a r o le ’, ‘s p e e c h ’, ‘p e r fo r m a n c e ’ e tc .) w ith d i s o r d e r . W e th u s fin d S a u ss u re (1 9 6 6 [orig. 1916]: 14, 9, 11, m y e m p h a s is ) a n n o u n c in g th a t ‘la n g u a g e is a w e ll- d e f in e d o b je c t in t h e h e t e r o g e n e o u s m a s s o f s p e e c h f a c ts ’, w h e re a s ‘sp e e c h c a n n o t b e s t u d i e d , ’ n o r in d e e d c a n it b e ‘p u t in a n y c a t e g o r y o f h u m a n f a c ts , f o r w e c a n n o t d is c o v e r its u n i t y ’. T h e te n o r w a s m u c h th e sa m e w h e n C h o m s k y (1 9 6 5 : 3f, 2 0 1 , m y e m p h a s is ) a s s e rte d h a lf a c e n tu ry th a t ‘lin g u is tic th e o ry is c o n c e rn e d p rim a rily w ith an id e a l s p e a k e r - h e a r e r in a c o m p le te ly h o m o g e n e o u s sp e e c h -c o m m u n ity , w h o k n o w s its la n g u a g e p e r f e c t l y ’, w h e re a s th e ‘o b s e rv e d u s e o f la n g u a g e ’ ‘su re ly c a n n o t c o n s ti t u t e t h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f lin g u is tic s , i f th is is to b e a s e r io u s d i s c i p l i n e ’, b e c a u s e ‘m u c h o f th e a c tu a l s p e e c h o b s e rv e d c o n s is ts o f f r a g m e n t s a n d d e v i a n t e x p r e s s io n s o f a v a r i e t y o f s o r t s ’ .
T h e b o ld e d ite m s p ro je c t a d u a lis m w h e re b y a n o rd e rly , u n ifie d sy ste m c o n tin u a lly p ro d u c e s d is o rd e rly a n d d is u n ifie d m a n ife s ta tio n s w h e n s p e a k e rs u s e th e la n g u a g e ; p re su m a b ly , h e a re rs p e rfo rm th e re v e rs e tra n s fo rm a tio n fro m d is o rd e r in to o rd er. Y e t a lre a d y as a m e re th o u g h t- e x p e rim e n t, s u c h a m o d e o f o p e ra tio n se e m s b o th fra n k ly im p la u s ib le a n d u tte rly c o u n te r-p ro d u c tiv e . A n d , as h a s b e e n re p e a te d ly sh o w n , la rg e c o rp u s d a ta c e rta in ly d is p la y n o su c h d iso rd e r; th e y d is p la y in s te a d im p re s s iv e ly fin e -tu n e d m o d e s o f o rd e r, a lth o u g h th o s e m o d e s d o n o t c o in c id e w ith th e id e a lis e d m o d e o f o rd e r u s u a lly p o s tu la te d a n d so u g h t b y c o n v e n tio n a l lin g u is tic s . S in c la ir (1 9 9 7 a : 4 ) h a s th u s re c e n tly s u rm is e d th a t ‘m a n y o f w e ll p ro te c te d a s s u m p tio n s o f la n g u a g e a n a ly s is a re s u sp e c t a n d p ro b a b ly d u e f o r ra d ic a l r e v is io n ’ .
T o a p p re c ia te w h y, w e s h o u ld re c a ll h o w m u c h e ffo rt m o d e rn lin g u is tic s fro m S a u ss u re to C h o m s k y h a s d e v o te d to s e a rc h in g f o r a n a b stra c t, id e a lis e d (o r ‘u n d e r ly in g ’) o rd e r o f la n g u a g e w ith o u t d e riv in g it fro m th e e v id e n c e o f a u th e n tic d is c o u rs e d a ta . T o d a y , a f te r n e a rly a c e n tu ry o f su c h re s e a rc h , th e v a rio u s id e a lis a tio n s p ro p o s e d to ‘u n d e r lie ’ a la n g u a g e lik e E n g lis h h a v e so f a r m a n a g e d to a c c o u n t fo r o n ly sm a ll p o rtio n o f th e re g u la ritie s o f a n y re a l la n g u a g e lik e E n g lis h a n d fo r a fe w w e ll-b e h a v e d fra g m e n ts o f th e ‘g r a m m a r ’ o r ‘s y n ta x ’. F a r fro m b e in g u n e a s y a t h a v in g a c h ie v e d so little , lin g u is ts n o w p ro u d ly p re s e n t a ‘m in im a lis t f r a m e w o r k ’ (A b ra h a m e t al., 1 99 6 ) w h e re b y th e in te n t to a c c o u n t f o r th e b a re m in im u m is e x p re ss ly a d v e rtis e d as a h a llm a rk o f sc ie n tific sta tu s
C o rp u s d a ta c a n n o w h e lp u s to a p p re c ia te w h y th is to ta l a c c o u n t h a s h a d to b e so lim ite d : a s ig n ific a n t p o rtio n o f th e c o n s tra in ts u p o n th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f lin g u is tic u n its, in c lu d in g ‘s e n te n c e s ’, a re n o t d e te rm in e d e ith e r b y ‘g r a m m a r ’ o r b y ‘s y n ta x ’ in th e s e n s e s c o n v e n tio n a lly a s sig n e d to th e s e tw o te rm s as se ts o f sy s te m s o f ‘r u le s ’; s p e a k e rs p u t w o rd s in v a rio u s o rd e rs fo r m a n y re a s o n s, s u c h as w h e n th in g s c o m e to m in d , w h a t se e m s im p o rta n t o r in te re stin g , w h o m th e y a re ta lk in g to , a n d so on. N o r in d e e d a re th e s e c o n s tra in ts d e te rm in e d b y ‘m o rp h o lo g y ’, ‘le x ic o n ’, o r ‘s e m a n tic s ’ in th e ir c o n v e n tio n a l se nse s. In ste a d , th e c o n s tra in ts e m e rg e fro m th e c o n t i n u a l i n t e r a c t io n s th a t c o -o rd in a te th o s e se ts o f s e le c tio n s a n d c o m b in a tio n s w h ic h a re r e l e v a n t to t h e a c t u a l d is c o u r s e (B e a u g ra n d e , 199 7 a). S o e a c h d is c o u rs e m e rg e s th e c o n trib u tio n s o f th e s t a n d i n g c o n s t r a i n t s o f th e la n g u a g e (e.g., E n g lis h p u ts th e A rtic le b e fo re th e N o u n , n o t a fte r it) w ith th e e m e r g e n t c o n s tr a i n t s w ith in th e e v o lv in g c o n te x t (e .g ., p o litic ia n s a re d e b a tin g h o w to tra n s fo rm a so c ie ty fro m a n ‘a u th o rita ria n r e g im e ’ in to a ‘d e m o c ra c y ’; se e se c tio n 2). In s o fa r as m o d e rn lin g u is tic s h a s so u g h t to fo rm u la te j u s t th e s ta n d in g c o n s tra in ts , it c o u ld o n ly c o n s tr u c t a fu z z y a n d in c o m p le te v is io n o f la n g u a g e .
Y e t d is c o u r s e a ls o c o n s titu te s a ‘t h e o r y ’ a b o u t th e o b je c ts a n d e v e n ts c o n s titu tin g s itu a tio n s in th e w o rld , in c lu d in g th e s itu a tio n w h e re in th e d isc o u rs e i ts e lf o c c u rs; a n e a t c o rre s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n w h a t th e d isc o u rs e say s a n d h o w th e o b je c ts a n d e v e n ts m a y b e o c c u rrin g ‘in r e a lity ’ c a n n o t b e ta k e n f o r g ra n te d . O n th e c o n tra ry , th e se v e ra l p a r tic ip a n ts m a y e a c h b e se e k in g to n e g o tia te a v e rs io n o f ‘r e a lity ’ w h ic h h o ld s a d a p t i v e v a l u e fo r th e ir o w n g o a ls, e.g., b y g iv in g th e im p re s s io n th a t th o s e g o a ls a re n a tu ra l, se n sib le , n e c e ss a ry , a n d so on. S till, te s tin g th e th e o ry o f th e d is c o u rs e a g a in s t th e p ra c tic e s w ith o b je c ts a n d e v e n ts in a re al situ a tio n is f a r m o re f e a s ib le a n d c o m m o n p la c e th a n te s tin g th e th e o ry o f th e la n g u a g e a g a in s t th e p r a c tic e s o f d is c o u rs e o n a n y la rg e scale.
T h is la y e rin g o f re la tio n s a m o n g th e o ry a n d p ra c tic e , as s u g g e s te d in th e g ra p h ic s h o w n h e re,
su g g e s ts th a t all o u r c o n c e p tio n s o f la n g u a g e a n d o f all its fa c to rs o r c o m p o n e n ts s h o u ld b e g ra s p e d in te rm s o f
a
d ia le c tic a l i n t e r a c t i o n b e tw e e n t h e o r y a n d p r a c ti c e , a n d n o t as p e rta in in gonly
to th e o ry , a s in f o rm a lis t lin g u is tic s , o r e ls eonly
to p ra c tic e , as in b e h a v io u r is t p s y c h o lo g y (cf. B e a u g ra n d e , 1998, 1999). W ith in a tru e d ia le c tic , th e th e o ry s h o u ld a c c o u n t f o r p ra c tic e s, w h e re a s th e p ra c tic e s s h o u ld tu n e th e c o n s tra in ts u p o n th e c o n s tr u c tio n a n d e v o lu tio n o f th e o rie s.O f sp e c ia l c o n c e rn h e re is th e d u al sta tu s o f
meaning
as th e o ry a n d p ra c tic e . T h e m e a n in g o f a g iv e n w o rd o r e x p re s s io n n e e d s to b e g ra sp e d as o n e e le m e n t s itu a te d w ith in th e to ta l la n g u a g e th a t c o n s titu te s a th e o ry o f k n o w le d g e a n d e x p e r ie n c e , ra th e r th a n j u s t as o n e fre e -s ta n d in g la b e l o r p o in te r f o r o n e e q u a lly fre e -s ta n d in g o b je c t o r e v e n t in th e w o rld . W e c a n th e n e x p lo re h o w th e s e m e a n in g s m u tu a lly c o n s tra in e a c h o th e r o n th e p la n e o f th e d isc o u rs e a n d n o t j u s t h o w a n y o n e m e a n in g m ig h t b e d e fin e d in is o la tio n in te rm s o f ‘r e fe r e n c e ’, ‘d e n o ta tio n ’, a n d th e o th e r c o n c e p tio n s o f se m a n tic s. A g a in , w e c a n a s su m e th a t th e se v e ra l p a rtic ip a n ts in a d is c o u rs e s e e k in g to n e g o tia te a v e rs io n o f ‘m e a n in g s ’ w h ic h h o ld a d a p t i v e v a lu e fo r th e ir o w n g o a ls, e .g., b y m a k in g th e m se e m o b v io u s, tra n sp a re n t, c o m m o n s e n s ic a l, a n d so fo rth . M u c h o f th e n e g o tia tin g is d o n e w ith o u t d e lib e ra te a w a re n e s s to a c c o m m o d a te th e re m a rk a b le sp e e d a n d e f fic ie n c y o f d isc o u rs e p ro c e ss in g , a n d re lie s on th e s e lf-o rg a n is in g c o n v e rg e n c e o f m u ltip le c o n s tra in ts , as sk e tc h e d a b o v e (se e B e a u g ra n d e , 1 9 9 7 a fo r d e ta ils).P e rh a p s th e m o s t im p o rta n t p a ra m e te r in th e n e g o tia tio n o f d is c o u rs e lie s b e tw e e n i n c lu s io n a n d e x c lu s io n . In th e o ry , a ‘la n g u a g e ’ is b y n a tu re in c lu siv e , j u s t as ‘c o m m u n ic a tio n ’ in a c tu a l d is c o u rs e im p lie s a ‘c o m m u n ity ’ a n d b e in g ‘sh a re d in c o m m o n ’ tru e to th e e ty m o lo g y o f th e w o rd . Y e t p re c is e ly b e c a u s e d iffe rin g g o a ls c a n f a v o u r d iffe rin g re a litie s a n d m e a n in g s, m a n y e x c lu s iv e stra te g ie s h a v e b e e n e la b o ra te d f o r tu rn in g la n g u a g e a n d d is c o u rs e b a c k a g a in s t th e m s e lv e s a n d c o n v e rtin g f u n d a m e n ta lly in c lu s iv e m e d ia in to e x c lu s iv e m e d ia , o fte n w ith o u t c o n s c io u s ly a c k n o w le d g in g o r in te n d in g th e c o n v e rsio n .
T h e m o s t o b v io u s in s ta n c e s c a n b e se e n w h e n g ro u p s o f
insiders
a re fo rm e d a n d se e k to e x c lu d eL e s s o b v io u s b u t e v e n m o re s ig n ific a n t a re th e stra te g ie s f o r e x c lu d in g p e o p le b y m a k in g th e m fe e l in c o m p e te n t th ro u g h s tig m a ti s in g t h e i r o w n la n g u a g e o r la n g u a g e v a r ie ty . T h e se s tra te g ie s a re m o s t w id e ly p ra c tis e d b y sp e a k e rs o f s o m e p re s tig io u s la n g u a g e o r la n g u a g e v a rie ty as a n in sid io u s m e a n s fo r s a fe g u a rd in g th e ir o w n p riv ile g e s w ith o u t r e s o rtin g to m o re fo rc e f u l m e th o d s th a t c o u ld g a lv a n is e r e s is ta n c e (B e a u g ra n d e , 1998, 1999).
T h e sp e a k e rs a n d a d v o c a te s o f s o m e p r e s tig io u s ‘s ta n d a rd ’ v a rie ty w ill in v a ria b ly c la im th a t th e ‘s ta n d a rd ’ is m o re v ita l fo r c o m m u n ic a tin g in w a y s th a t a re ‘c le a r e r ’, ‘m o re p r e c is e ’, ‘m o re e f fic ie n t’, ‘m o re in te lle c tu a l’, e tc ., th a n a re o th e r v a rie tie s, e v e n w h e n th e m a in d iff e re n c e s a re m e r e ly p h o n e tic . T h e a c c o u n t sk e tc h e d h e re su g g e s ts th a t th e re a lly im p o rta n t fa c to r is ra th e r th e a d v a n ta g e s o f ‘s ta n d a rd ’ s p e a k e rs to s u sta in a n u n q u e s tio n e d d o m in a n c e in th e n e g o tia tio n o f re a litie s a n d m e a n in g s d u rin g a d isc o u rse . T h e ir v e rs io n s s o u n d m o re c o n v in c in g , a c c u ra te , a n d a c c r e d ite d m e re ly b y v ir tu e o f th e ‘s ta n d a rd n e s s ’ o f th e ir la n g u a g e , w h e re a s th e o p p o s ite h o ld s f o r th e v e rs io n s o f ‘n o n - s ta n d a r d ’ sp e a k e rs.
In a d d itio n , th e a d v o c a te s o f ‘s ta n d a rd la n g u a g e ’ c o m p la c e n tly a s su m e th a t its fe a tu re s a re c le a rly a n d u n iv e rs a lly d e fin e d . Y e t a c tu a l c o rp u s d a ta in d ic a te th a t its fe a tu re s a re o fte n fu z z y a n d d is p u ta tio u s . W e s h o u ld h a r d ly b e s u rp rise d , sin c e a la n g u a g e n a tu ra lly te n d s to m a n ife s t c lin e s a n d b u n d lin g s o f fe a tu re s as it e v o lv e s a c ro ss tim e s, p la c e s , a n d so c ie tie s ; a n d sin c e n u m e ro u s a n d d iv e r se g ro u p s w is h to c la im th e a d v a n ta g e s o f d o m in a n c e o v e r d is c o u rse . In d e e d , fu z z y sta n d a rd s se rv e b e tte r th a n c le a r o n e s fo r im p e d in g a c c e s s o f o u tsid e rs w h o m ig h t a tte m p t to a c q u ire th e sta n d a rd (B e a u g ra n d e , 1998, 1999).
T h e p o in t fo r u s to d a y is n o t to c la im th a t ‘s ta n d a rd E n g lis h ’ a n d s im ila r n o tio n s s im p ly d o n ’t e x ist, o r th a t w e s h o u ld n o t m a k e ‘s ta n d a rd E n g lis h ’ a c c e s s ib le f o r th o s e w h o n e e d o r d e s ire it. T h e p o in t is th a t w e w o u ld b e u n d e m o c ra tic to call fo r ‘s ta n d a rd E n g lis h ’ a n d re w a rd th o s e w h o a c q u ire it w h e n w e c a n n o t ra tio n a lly d e fin e its fe a tu re s a n d m a k e th e m re lia b ly a c c e s sib le . T o a c h ie v e th a t ta sk , w e w ill re q u ire c o m p re h e n s iv e a n d a u th e n tic d a ta a b o u t w h a t p e o p le a c tu a lly d o say a n d w rite .
P a s t a tte m p ts to d e fin e s la n g u a g e s ta n d a rd h a v e b e e n im p e d e d b y a t le a s t tw o m a jo r fa c to rs. O n e fa c to r w a s th e p r e s c r i p t i v is m a n d p r o s c r i p t iv i s m o f m a n y s e lf-a p p o in te d la n g u a g e g u a rd ia n s w h o sa w th e ir m is s io n in ‘im p ro v in g ’ th e la n g u a g e o v e r th e w a y s it w a s u s e d b y ‘th e c o m m o n p e o p le ’ o r ‘th e v u lg a r m o b ’; th e u s a g e s th e y d e c la re d to b e ‘b a d E n g lis h ’ o r e v e n ‘n o t E n g lis h ’ w e re n a tu ra lly c u lle d fro m th e re al u s a g e o f th e la n g u a g e v a rie tie s th e y w is h e d to stig m a tise . T h e se a ttitu d e s a re b y n o m e a n s e x tin c t to d a y , th o u g h th e y m a y b e c a m o u fla g e d b e h in d a n a v o w e d c o n c e rn fo r ‘c la r ity ’, ‘p r e c is io n ’, etc. e tc ., as n o te d a b o v e . B u t th e y a re c le a rly u n d e m o c ra tic a n d irra tio n a l in c la im in g th a t w h a t la rg e s e c to rs o f th e p o p u la tio n re a lly say is s o m e h o w n o t a p r o p e r p a r t o f th e la n g u a g e . A n d th e s o lu tio n is n o t to p ro lo n g th e h o p e le s s a n d fru itle s s c ru sa d e s fo r s ta m p in g o u t ‘b a d ’ u s a g e , b u t to p ro m o te d e m o c ra tic a n d ra tio n a l a ttitu d e s a b o u t la n g u a g e v a ria tio n a n d la n g u a g e v a rie tie s (G e re & S m ith , 1979; P h illip s o n , 1992).
T h e o th e r fa c to r h a s b e e n d a t a lim ita tio n s : th e w id e d isp a rity b e tw e e n th e to ta lity o f w h a t w a s sa id o r w r itte n d u rin g a g iv e n p e rio d (sa y a d e c a d e ) a n d th e a m o u n t a n in v e s tig a to r o r te a m c o u ld m a n a g e to c o lle c t a n d e x a m in e . T h is d isp a rity is n o w b e in g d ra m a tic a lly re d u c e d b y m e a n s o f v e ry la rg e c o rp o ra sto re d in c o m p u te ris e d d a ta b a n k s . T o b e sure, i f a la n g u a g e is a lw a y s in th e p ro c e s s o f b e in g c re a te d a n d n e g o tia te d , n o c o rp u s, h o w e v e r la rg e , c a n e v e r p ro v id e a c o m p le te p i c t u r e ; y e t s te a d ily la rg e r c o rp o ra c a n e n a b le u s to a c h ie v e s te a d il y c lo s e r a p p r o x i m a ti o n s .
W ith in th is p e r sp e c tiv e , d isc o u rs e a b o u t ‘la n g u a g e s ta n d a rd s ’ a n d ‘c u rre n t u s a g e ’ c a n fin a lly b e e x a m in e d to se e w h e th e r a n d h o w f a r th e th e o ry o r la n g u a g e p o lic y m a k e rs, la n g u a g e e d u c a to rs , a n d so fo rth , fits th e p ra c tic e s . W e c a n p la u s ib ly e x p e c t to fin d th a t th e re a lly c le a r-c u t d is tin c tio n s b e tw e e n ‘s ta n d a rd ’ a n d ‘n o n - s ta n d a r d ’ a re b y n o m e a n s so n u m e ro u s o r g e n e ra l as h a s b e e n ty p ic a lly im p lie d b y th e la n g u a g e g u a rd ia n s , a n d d o n o t s ig n ific a n tly im p a ir c o m m u n ic a tio n . F o r th e v a s t m a jo rity o f c a ses, th e r e le v a n t d is tin c tio n s a re m a d e b e tw e e n g r o u p - s p e c i f ic v a r ie tie s c h a ra c te ris e d b y su c h fa c to rs as ag e, so c ia l c la ss, p ro fe s sio n , h o b b y , e d u c a tio n , a n d p la c e o f re s id e n c e , w h e re p re s c rip tiv e n o tio n s lik e ‘c o r re c tn e s s ’ a n d ‘g r a m m a tic a ll y ’ a re e m p ty a n d in a p p ro p ria te .
‘k n o w le d g e o f th e la n g u a g e ’ m a in ta in e d b y p ro fe s s io n a l lin g u is ts o f th e v a rio u s fo rm a lis t sc h o o ls, w h o h a v e a s s e rte d th a t th e ir o w n ‘in tu itio n ’ as ‘n a tiv e s p e a k e rs ’ p ro v id e s th e m w ith ‘a n e n o rm o u s m a s s o f u n q u e s tio n a b le d a ta ’ (C h o m sk y , 1965: 20). A d m itte d ly , a c o rp u s c a n n o t g iv e a c o m p le te p ic tu re o f c o lle c tiv e n a tiv e -s p e a k e r-in tu itio n a n y m o re th a n it c a n o f th e la n g u a g e itse lf. B u t th o s e w h o w o rk w ith c o rp u s w ill so o n n o tic e th a t in tu itio n is o p p o r t u n i s t i c : it c a n n o t b y a n y m e a n s p re d ic t all th e o p tio n s th e c o rp u s d isp la y s b u t it c a n u s u a lly m a k e g o o d se n se o f th e m a f te r th e fa c t (F ra n c is a n d S inc lair,
1994).
T h e n a tiv e s p e a k e r c o u ld th u s b e d e s c rib e d as h o ld in g a c o m p e te n c e th a t e x te n d s fa r b e y o n d h is o r h e r o w n p e rfo rm a n c e e v e n o v e r a v e r y lo n g tim e . A s w e h a v e re m a rk e d , th e s p e c u la tiv e d is tin c tio n set fo rth b y C h o m s k y (1 9 6 5 ) a n d o th e r s te n d s to e q u a te ‘c o m p e te n c e ’ w ith o rd e r, a n d ‘p e r fo r m a n c e ’ w ith d iso rd e r. C o rp u s d a ta s u g g e s t in s te a d th a t ‘c o m p e te n c e ’ w o u ld b e t h e n a t iv e s p e a k e r ’s p o t e n t i a l to a c h ie v e o r d e r , w h e re a s ‘p e r fo r m a n c e ’ w o u ld b e th e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f a c tu a ll y a c h ie v e d o r d e r . T h is ‘o r d e r ’ is p re c is e ly n o t th e sy n ta c tic o r s e m a n tic ‘w e ll- fo r m e d n e s s ’ o r ‘g r a m m a tic a ll y ’ d e fin e d in m o s t o f fo rm a lis t lin g u is tic s to b e a p ro p e rty o f ‘u n d e rly in g s tr u c tu r e s ’ a n d n o t ‘d ire c tly re fle c te d ’ in ‘s u rfa c e s tr u c tu r e s ’ . It is a m u lt ip le o r d e r a c h ie v e d b y m u lti p l e d ia le c tic s b e tw e e n sy ste m a n d in s ta n c e , b e tw e e n c o m p e te n c e a n d p e r fo rm a n c e , b e tw e e n re g u la rity a n d in n o v a tio n , a n d so on (B e a u g ra n d e , 1997a, 1998, 1999).
M o re o v e r, th e p r e s e n ta tio n o f c o rp u s d a ta o ffe rs m a n y o p p o rtu n itie s to te s t o n e ’s o w n in tu itio n s, w h e th e r o f lin g u is ts o r o f m o re g e n e ra l la n g u a g e u se rs: re a c tin g to a s a m p le a c tu a l c o rp u s d a ta b y d e s c rib in g th e p ro b a b le c o n te x t o f situ a tio n ; g u e s s in g w h a t h a d j u s t g o n e b e fo re o r w h a t is c o m in g n e x t; c o m p a rin g th e s a m p le to w h a t y o u m ig h t say, a n d so on.
T h e se , th e n , a re so m e o f th e th in g s la r g e c o rp o ra se e m to b e te llin g u s a b o u t ‘la n g u a g e ’, a n d so m e o f th e w a y s th o s e th in g s d e p a rt fro m c o n c e p tio n s o f ‘la n g u a g e ’ p ro m o te d b y tra d itio n a l la n g u a g e g u a rd ia n s a n d b y m o d e rn lin g u is ts w h o h a d n o a c c e s s to la r g e c o rp o ra . W e c a n th u s a p p re c ia te S in c la ir’s su rm ise , q u o te d a b o v e , th a t ‘m a n y o f w e ll p ro te c te d a s s u m p tio n s o f la n g u a g e a n a ly s is a re s u sp e c t a n d p ro b a b ly d u e fo r ra d ic a l r e v is io n ’ .
‘Democracy’ as an evolving term and concept in South African discourse
N o w , h o w m ig h t th e s e w id e -ra n g in g d e lib e ra tio n s a b o u t ‘la n g u a g e ’ a n d ‘d is c o u r s e ’ in lig h t o f c o rp u s d a ta re la te to w ith o u r p ro g ra m m a tic title , ‘d isc o u rs e a n d d e m o c ra c y ’? F o r o u r o w n p u rp o se s , ‘d e m o c ra c y ’ c a n b e s tra ig h tfo rw a rd ly d e fin e d as a m o d e o f h u m a n in te ra c tio n o n th e b a s is o f m u tu a l e q u a lity a n d re s p e c t fo r h u m a n rig h ts. T h e d e fin itio n d o e s n o t y ie ld a c le a r-c u t b o r d e r b e tw e e n ‘d e m o c r a tic ’ v e rs u s ‘u n d e m o c r a tic ’, b u t ra th e r a g r a d ie n t b e tw e e n ‘m o re d e m o c r a tic ’ v e rs u s ‘le ss d e m o c r a tic ’ . Id e a lly , a ‘d e m o c ra c y ’ s h o u ld b e d e e m e d a u th e n tic o n ly w h e re e q u a lity a n d re s p e c t a re a c c o rd e d to
all citizens,
a n d n o t j u s t to a d o m in a n t m a jo rity o r v o tin g b lo c k . T h a t id e a l m a y s o u n d a b it u t o p i a n , sin c e f e w o f th e o ffic ia lly p ro c la im e d ‘d e m o c ra c ie s ’ in th e ‘m o d e rn w o r ld ’ h a v e a c tu a lly a c h ie v e d it. Y e t i f ‘u to p ia is a n u n re a lis tic sta te to a s p ire t o ’, ‘th e d e s ire to a p p ro a c h it as c lo se ly as p o s s ib le is r e a lis tic ’ (O w o m o y e la , 1996: 141). S o d e m o c r a c y is b e s t u n d e rs to o d as a h u m a n s p a c e w ith u n lim ite d p o te n tia l fo r re a l a d v a n c e m e n t: i f w e c a n n e v e r a r riv e a t u to p ia , w e c a n a lw a y s a r riv e a t a c lo s e r a p p ro x im a tio n (B e a u g ra n d e , 1998, 1999). ‘D e m o c r a c y ’ c a n th u s b e d e fin e d as a m a n d a t e fo r s te a d ily w id e n in g a n d d e e p e n in g th e in c lu s iv e n e s s o f so c ia l p ra c tic e s to b rin g th e m c lo s e r a n d c lo s e r to th e fu n d a m e n ta l th e o ry o f d e m o c ra c y . M u tu a l e q u a lity a n d re s p e c t f o r h u m a n rig h ts o f a m a jo rity is c le a rly ‘m o re d e m o c r a tic ’ th a n fo r th e rig h ts o f a m in o rity , b u t c a n o n ly b e o n e ste p o n th e w a y to w a rd in c lu d in g s te a d ily w id e r a n d m o re d iv e rse s e c to rs o f th e to ta l p o p u la tio n , in c lu d in g all m in o ritie s .re n d e re d u n d e m o c ra tic to f o m e n t d iv is io n s a m o n g g ro u p s o r b e tw e e n in s id e rs v e rs u s o u tsid e rs. A n d th is re c o u rs e c a n b e e x p e c te d p a rtic u la rly in s o c ie tie s w h e re a ‘d e m o c r a tic ’ c o n s titu tio n g u a r a n te e s h u m a n rig h ts fo r all ra c e s , g e n d e rs, re lig io n s , a n d so on, b u t w h e re th e e lite s still fa ll b a c k u p o n la n g u a g e as a p re te x t to p re s e rv e th e ir sp e c ia l p riv ile g e s.
F e w o rd in a ry sp e a k e rs p ro b a b ly a p p re c ia te th e e x te n t to w h ic h d isc o u rs e a b o u n d s w ith d e c is io n s e ith e r to w a rd o r a w a y fro m ‘d e m o c ra c y ’; c e rta in ly , m o s t sp e a k e rs a re u n lik e ly to h a v e b e e n se n sitise d to w a rd th e s e d e c is io n s b y c o n v e n tio n a l la n g u a g e e d u c a tio n (B e a u g ra n d e , 1998). Y e t a t a d e e p le v e l o f a w a r e n e s s, m a n y sp e a k e rs a n d h e a re rs a re k e e n ly a ttu n e d to s u b tle sig n a ls o f e q u a lity a n d in e q u a lity in a c tu a l d is c o u rs e p ra c tic e s .
T h e g re a te s t c h a lle n g e o f all fo r la n g u a g e p o lic y a n d la n g u a g e e d u c a tio n w o u ld b e to in s til a liv e ly se n sib ility a n d d e te rm in a tio n to s u p p o rt d e m o c r a c y in a n d th ro u g h d isc o u rs e a n d to p u t its th e o rie s o f in c lu s io n in to p r a c tic e s o f in c lu s io n w h e n th e so c ie ty is h ig h ly d iv e rse in its c u ltu re s, la n g u a g e s , la n g u a g e v a rie tie s, re lig io n s , a n d so fo rth . P re c is e ly s u c h a c h a lle n g e h a s b e e n re so lu te ly ta k e n u p b y th e g o v e rn m e n t o f S o u th A fric a sin c e 1994. T h e re , a b ro a d c o n s e n s u s h a s b e e n c o n s o lid a te d fo r tra n s fo rm in g th e so c ie ty fro m a n ‘a u th o rita ria n r e g im e ’ in to a g e n u in e ‘d e m o c ra c y ’ (cf. sa m p le [10] b e lo w ). T h e n e w C o n s titu tio n is a v e rita b le m o d e l o f d e m o c ra tic th e o ry (cf. sa m p le s [6-7, 9]), s u rp a s sin g e v e n th e C o n s titu tio n s o f m a n y o ld e r a n d m o re fa m ilia r ‘d e m o c r a c ie s ’ su c h as th e U S A , w h e re ‘E q u a l R ig h ts A m e n d m e n ts ’ to th e c o n s titu tio n h a v e b e e n re p e a te d ly v o te d d o w n b y th e e le c to ra te a n d th e le g is la tu re s o r v e to e d b y a R e p u b lic a n P re s id e n t. I f S o u th A fric a c a n p u t th is th e o ry in to c o rre s p o n d in g ly d e m o c ra tic p ra c tic e , it w ill se t a h is to ric e x a m p le fo r o th e r n a tio n s in tra n sitio n .
O n e v a lu a b le re s o u rc e fo r e x p lo rin g th e so cia l, p o litic a l, a n d c u ltu ra l e v o lu tio n o f S o u th A fric a n so c ie ty d u rin g th is c ru c ia l sta g e m ig h t b e f o u n d in th e S o u th A fric a n C o rp u s o f E n g lis h , w h ic h h a s re c e n tly b e e n e s ta b lis h e d a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f P o r t E liz a b e th u n d e r th e s u p e rv is io n o f C h r is Je ffre y . T h is c o rp u s w a s o rig in a lly in a u g u ra te d as p a rt o f th e In te rn a tio n a l C u ltu re o f E n g lis h (IC E ) u n d e r th e d ir e c tio n o f th e la te S id n e y G re e n b a u m a t U n iv e rs ity C o lle g e L o n d o n , w h ic h p la n n e d c o rp o ra f o r a g e o g ra p h ic a lly w id e s p re a d c ro s s -s e c tio n o f lo c a l E n g lis h e s : n o t j u s t E n g la n d , th e U S A , a n d C a n a d a , b u t a ls o th e C a rib b e a n a n d J a m a ic a , H o n g K o n g , S in g a p o re , In d ia , K e n y a -T a n z a n ia -Z im b a b w e , N ig e ria , th e P h ilip p in e s , a n d S o u th A fric a (G re e n b a u m , 1991). T h e se c o rp o ra w o u ld p ro v id e , f o r th e f ir s t tim e in h isto ry , a b a s e o f a u th e n tic d a ta a b o u t lo c a l v a rie tie s o f E n g lis h th a t h a v e h ith e rto le d a c o n tr a d ic to ry e x is te n c e o f b e in g u s e d b y la r g e p o p u la tio n s b u t n o t a p p ro p ria te ly re c o g n is e d as v a lid a lte rn a tiv e la n g u a g e sy ste m s.
T h e s e c o rp o ra m ig h t a llo w u s to e x p lo re h o w th e m e a n in g o f k e y te rm s , su c h as ‘d e m o c ra c y ’ a n d ‘d e m o c r a tic ’, is b e in g c o n tin u a lly w o rk e d o u t in d is c u rs iv e p ra c tic e s . O n e h e u ris tic w e m ig h t a p p ly to th e C o rp u s o f S o u th A fric a n E n g lis h (h e re a fte r C S A E ) w o u ld b e to e x a m in e th e c o llo c a tio n a l te n d e n c i e s o r c o llo c a b ilitie s , d e fin e d as th e p re fe re n c e s o f d isc o u rs e p a rtic ip a n ts re g a rd in g h o w le x ic o g ra m m a tic a l re s o u rc e s a re ty p ic a lly se le c te d a n d c o m b in e d d u rin g d is c o u r s e , as w e c a n in fe r th e m fro m th e a c tu a l
‘collocations
’, d e fin e d as a n a rra y o f in te ra c tiv e lin g u is tic c h o ic e s th a t a re d istin c tly m o re lik e ly th a n a v e r a g e to o c c u r to g e th e r (cf. F irth , 1968: 186, 111, 182f, 106ff, 113; G re e n b a u m , 1 974), e.g. ‘m u ltira c ia l d e m o c ra c y ’ in [15] o r ‘c o m m itte d fre e d o m f ig h te r ’ in [58]. Still, n o m a tte r h o w la rg e a c o rp u s b e c o m e s , w e w ill a lw a y s e n c o u n te r s o m e ‘p a tte rn s f o r w h ic h th e re is s o m e e v id e n c e , b u t in s u ffic ie n t to m a k e a c o n c lu s iv e c a s e fo r s ig n if ic a n c e ’ (S in c la ir, 1991: 4 9 1).p r o d u c tiv e ly b e fa c to re d a c c o rd in g to p o litic a l se ttin g s a n d h is to ric a l p e rio d s , as w e ll as so u rc es, re g iste rs , a u d ie n c e s , a n d p o s s ib ly e v e n in d iv id u a l sp e a k e rs o r w rite rs.
M e a n w h ile , th e p re s e n t re p o rt m u s t o b v io u sly b e re g a rd e d as a p ro g ra m m a tic e x p lo ra tio n , in te n d e d n o t to d r a w firm c o n c lu s io n s a b o u t ‘ S o u th A fric a n E n g lis h ’ b u t m e r e ly to in d ic a te w h a t w e o u rse lv e s in tu itiv e ly ju d g e to b e in te re s tin g e v id e n c e su c h a c o rp u s c a n o ffe r a b o u t th e d isc o u rs e o f a so c ie ty u n d e rg o in g a s w e e p in g tra n sitio n . W e still n e e d fa r m o re d a ta fro m a f a r w id e r ra n g e o f so u rc e s a n d re g io n s b e fo re w e c a n a d d re ss , le t a lo n e a n s w e r, su c h k e y q u e s tio n s as h o w ‘d e m o c ra c y ’ w ill b e d e fin e d in p ra c tic e a n d n o t j u s t in th e o ry .
N o w le t u s lo o k a t s o m e C S A E d a ta o n th e c e n tra l te rm s ‘d e m o c r a c y ’ a n d ‘d e m o c r a t i c ’ th e m s e lv e s . N o t s u rp risin g ly , th e s e te rm s re tu rn e d p le n ty o f a tte s ta tio n s — 184 a n d 2 4 4 re s p e c tiv e ly — a lth o u g h w e c a n sa fe ly d isr e g a rd th e 65 o c c u rre n c e s o f ‘D e m o c r a tic ’ in s e lf-c h o se n n a m e s o f o rg a n isa tio n s, u s u a lly p o litic a l, w h e re th e m e a n in g is c o n v e n ie n tly n o n -c o m m itta l o r m e re ly p r e te n tio u s (e.g. fo r M r M a n g o p e ’s d u b io u s ‘U n ite d C h ris tia n D e m o c ra tic P a r ty ’). T h e re m a in in g d a ta d o p ro v id e u s w ith n u m e ro u s p ro d u c tiv e sig n a ls o f h o w th e te rm is b e in g c o n te x tu a lis e d in S o u th A fric a n d isc o u rs e . A t le a s t th re e fa m ilia r c o n c e p tio n s c o u ld b e d e te c te d :
(a ) a
doctrine o f equality in human rights
a n d inpersonal and civil liberties
;(b ) a
political system o f ‘majority rule ’
b y m e a n s o f a s e c u re e le c to ra l m a c h in e ry w ithmultiple
parties
a n duniversal voting rights
;(c ) a n
economic system o f free enterprise and equal opportunity
in th e e c o n o m y a n d th e jo b m a rk e t.A t th e s ta rt o f th is se c tio n , w e p ro p o s e d a d e fin itio n o f ‘d e m o c ra c y ’ c e n tre d sq u a re ly u p o n th e fir s t c o n c e p tio n (a). T h e a s s u m p tio n th a t all th re e c o n c e p tio n s a re fu lly c o m p a tib le a n d h a v e in fa c t b e e n s u c c e s s fu lly in te g ra te d in th e ‘m o d e rn W e s te r n ’ s o c ie tie s o f E u ro p e a n d N o r th A m e ric a is a p o p u la r a n d re a s s u rin g n o tio n , b u t o n e S o u th A fric a n s m ig h t w e ll re g a rd w ith e x tre m e c a u tio n . ‘M a jo rity r u le ’ in c o n c e p tio n (b) is b y n o m e a n s a sa fe g u a ra n te e o f e q u a lity in h u m a n rig h ts; h is to ry p ro v id e s a d a u n tin g g a lle ry o f d e m o n s tra tio n s o f h o w a m a jo rity c a n d o le o u t h a rsh ly u n d e m o c ra tic tre a tm e n t to m in o ritie s . S u re ly f e w S o u th A fric a n s w o u ld s u g g e s t th a t th e in s titu tio n a lis e d ra c is m in th e U S A p rio r to th e c iv il rig h ts le g is la tio n o f th e 1 96 0 s w a s ‘d e m o c r a tic ’ j u s t b e c a u s e it h a p p e n e d to h a v e b e e n a p p ro v e d th e re b y a w h ite m a jo rity . In th e S o u th A fric a n c o n te x t, a t all e v e n ts , th e s u p re m e te s t f o r th e n e w ‘d e m o c r a c y ’ w ill b e fo r all o f th e g ro u p s , sh a rp ly d iv id e d b y a lo n g a n d tro u b le d h is to ry o f c o n flic t, to g ra n t e a c h o th e r th e rig h ts a n d re s p e c t e a c h g ro u p w a n ts f o r th e m se lv e s . A s w e sh a ll see, th e C S A E d a ta in d ic a te a w id e sp re a d o f a ttitu d e s a n d e x p e c ta tio n s a b o u t th is test.
E v e n g re a te r c a u tio n s h o u ld b e e x e rc is e d a b o u t th e fu ll c o m p a tib ility o f d e m o c r a c y w ith an e c o n o m ic sy s te m o f ‘fre e e n te r p ris e ’. M a rtin a n d S c h u m a n n ’s (1 9 9 6 : 3 1 1 ) p r o d ig io u s ly re s e a rc h e d e x p o s é o f ‘g lo b a lis a tio n ’ su m m a rise s th e c u rre n t s itu a tio n in th e s e te rm s:
N o w w h a t th e fo u n d e rs o f th e p o s t- w a r w e lfa re sta te s h a d le a rn e d fro m b it te r e x p e rie n c e is b e c o m in g e v e r m o re c le a r ly v is ib le : fre e -m a rk e t e c o n o m y a n d d e m o c ra c y a re b y n o m e a n s in s e p a ra b le b lo o d -b ro th e rs , w h o h a r m o n io u s ly n o u r is h p r o s p e r ity f o r e v e r y o n e . In s te a d , th e tw o c e n tra l g u id in g m o d e ls o f th e o ld in d u s tr ia l s ta te s o f W e s t s ta n d in c o n s ta n t c o n tra d ic tio n to e a c h o th e r.
In v ie w o f th e s e c o n s id e ra tio n s , th e r e p re s e n ta tio n o f th e th re e c o n c e p tio n s o f ‘d e m o c ra c y ’ in o u r C S A E d a ta m a y o ffe r so m e n o te w o rth y sig n a ls o f c u rre n t a n d fu tu re d e v e lo p m e n ts .2 T h e c o n c e p tio n o f e q u a lity in h u m a n rig h ts w a s w e ll d o c u m e n te d in c o n te x ts s u p p ly in g a b r is k ra n g e o f c o n c e p ts (c a lle d ‘c o r n e rs to n e s ’, ‘p r in c ip le s ’, ‘v a lu e s ’, e tc .), in c lu d in g ‘h u m a n rig h ts , ju s tic e , p e a c e , e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t’ [1], ‘n o n -ra c is m , n o n - s e x is m ’ [2 ], ‘ so cia l ju s tic e a n d fu n d a m e n ta l h u m a n r ig h ts ’ [3], ‘u n iv e rs a l a d u lt su ffra g e , a n a tio n a l c o m m o n v o te rs ro ll, r e g u la r e le c tio n s, a n d a m u lti-p a rty s y s te m ’ [4] o r ‘re n e w a l, sp o rt, y o u th , to le r a n c e ’ [5]. S o m e d a ta e v e n sig n a lle d a fe e lin g o f h a v in g se t a h is to ric a l m ile s to n e in th e a d v a n c e o f ‘d e m o c ra c y ’ [6-7], a lb e it w ith m in o r u n e a s in e s s a b o u t ‘te n s io n ’ [7] a n d th e ‘c rim e r a te ’ a n d ‘c o r ru p tio n ’ [8] (c o m p a re th e ‘life a n d d e a th stru g g le a g a in s t c r im e ’ in s a m p le [58] b e lo w ).
[1] lis ts o f ‘c o r n e r s t o n e s ’ — m o re th a n 2 0 in all — in c lu d in g h u m a n r ig h t s , d e m o c r a c y , ju s ti c e , p e a c e , A f r ic a , e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t.
[2] to f u rth e r th e in te re s ts o f th e p r a c titio n e r in th e fie ld o f a d u lt c o n tin u in g e d u c a tio n a n d tra in in g . A E T A S A [A m a lg a m a te d E n g lis h T e a c h e rs A s s o c ia tio n o f S o u th A fric a ] is c o m m itte d to th e p r in c ip le s o f n o n - r a c i s m , n o n - s e x is m , d e m o c r a c y a n d s u s t a i n a b l e d e v e lo p m e n t a n d fu rth e r b e lie v e s th a t h i s t o r i c a l i m b a la n c e s in t h e p r o v is i o n o f a d u l t e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g sh o u ld b e a d d re ss e d as a p rio rity .
[3] e s ta b lis h a so c ie ty b a s e d o n d e m o c ra tic v a lu e s , s o c ia l j u s t i c e a n d f u n d a m e n t a l h u m a n r ig h ts ; L a y th e fo u n d a tio n s fo r a d e m o c ra tic a n d o p e n s o c ie ty in w h ic h g o v e r n m e n t is b a s e d o n th e w ill o f t h e p e o p le a n d e v e r y c itiz e n is e q u a lly p r o te c t e d b y la w
[4] U n i v e r s a l a d u l t s u f f r a g e , a n a t i o n a l c o m m o n v o te r s r o ll, r e g u l a r e le c tio n s , a n d a m u l t i p a r t y s y s te m o f d e m o c ra tic g o v e r n m e n t, to e n s u re a c c o u n ta b il ity , r e s p o n s iv e n e s s a n d o p e n n e s s . S u p re m a c y o f C o n s titu tio n
[5] h i s t o r i c m o m e n t w ith frie n d s in te rn a tio n a lly w h ile w e c e l e b r a t e w o r t h w h i le t h i n g s lik e r e n e w a l, s p o r t , y o u t h , t o le r a n c e , a n d d e m o c r a c y . < P > O n e o f th e m e c h a n is m s fo r su c c e s s is th e S o u th A fric a n re s o lv e to h o ld a u n i q u e l y d e v e lo p m e n ta l G a m e s in C a p e to w n .
[6] b u t a lso d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b a s e d o n g e n d e r , s e x u a l o r i e n t a t i o n a n d r e lig io n . Iro n ic a lly , w h ile t h e h i s t o r i c ‘c r a d le s o f d e m o c r a c y ’ s till a g o n is e o v e r a n E q u a l R ig h t s A m e n d m e n t, th e S o u th A fric a n c o n s titu tio n g u a ra n te e s w o m e n e q u a l rig h ts.
[7]
Accept contradictions,
te n s io n tw o y e a r s a f t e r t h e a r r i v a l o f p o litic a l d e m o c r a c y , S o u th A fric a b o a s ts a m o d e l l i b e r a l d e m o c r a t i c c o n s ti t u t i o n w h ic h h a s fe w p e e r s in t h e w o r l d c o m m u n ity .[8] c itiz e n s to d a y a re p r o u d to b e S o u th A fric a n s . P e rh a p s it is b e c a u s e a ll S o u th A f r i c a n s h a v e h e l p e d to b r i n g a b o u t a d e m o c r a c y a n d h a v e p a r t i c i p a t e d in its r i t u a l s . It m a y a lso m e a n th a t in s p ite o f t h e d i s a s t r o u s c r i m e r a t e , th e g r a v y t r a i n a c c u s a t io n s a n d th e p e r e n n i a l r e p o r t s o f c o r r u p t i o n
W e sh a ll re tu rn to o v e r to n e s lin k in g d e m o c ra c y to ‘e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t’ la te r on.
P re d ic ta b ly , th e C S A E d a ta sig n a lle d a c o n s c io u s d e te rm in a tio n , ra n g in g fro m m ild to in te n se , to tu rn a w a y fro m th e p a s t [9 -1 5 ], e.g. v ia a ‘s h if t’ [10] , a ‘n e w s ty le ’ [11 ], a ‘r e in s ta te m e n t’ o r e v e n a ‘q u a n tu m b l a s t ’ [12]. T h e te rm s f o r in v o k in g th e p a s t a lso ra n g e d fro m m ild a n d a b s tra c t, e.g. ‘d iv is io n s ’ [9], ‘a u th o rita ria n p a s t [10 ], ‘h u g e p r o b le m s ’ [11 ], ‘e x c lu s iv e p r iv ile g e s ’ [12 ], to c o n c r e te a n d in te n s e , e.g. ‘a c c u m u la te d ra c is t m u c k ’ [13 ], a n d ‘m a s s a c re o f th e in n o c e n t’ [14]. A m id th is c h o ru s o f v o ic e s , th e a d m o n itio n o f ‘F W ’ (i.e. d e K le rk ) [15] o f m ig h t s o u n d lik e a n in v ita tio n to fo rg e t th e p a s t w h e n h is ru lin g N a tio n a lis t P a rty b u s ily trie d to p la n t a p a rth e id b e h in d e v e ry b u sh.
[9] c o n s titu tio n as th e s u p re m e la w o f th e R e p u b lic so as to h e a l t h e d iv is io n s o f t h e p a s t a n d e s ta b lis h a so c ie ty b a s e d o n d e m o c ra tic v a lu e s , s o c ia l j u s t i c e a n d f u n d a m e n t a l h u m a n r ig h ts ; L a y th e fo u n d a tio n s f o r a d e m o c ra tic a n d o p e n s o c ie ty
[11] th a t a d e v e lo p in g c o u n t r y w ith th e c o m p le x itie s a n d h u g e p r o b le m s o f o u rs s h o u ld d e v e lo p a n e w s ty le o f p a r t i c i p a t o r y d e m o c r a c y n o t to f r u s t r a t e o r r e s t r i c t t h e m a j o r i t y b u t to in v o lv e m o r e p a r t i e s a t l e a d e r s h i p le v e l in t h e d e c is io n m a k in g
[12] th e le a rn e d p ro fe s s o r h a s h e a rd o f th e w is e w o rd s ‘ju s tic e d e la y e d is ju s tic e d e n ie d ’. T h a t is w h a t th e n e w d e m o c r a c y is all a b o u t — a r e i n s t a t e m e n t o f s o c ia l j u s t i c e f o r t h e m a j o r i t y a n d a d i m i n u t i o n o f e x c lu s iv e p r iv ile g e s f o r t h e w h ite m i n o r i t y
[13] fo r m u c h to o lon g . C o n tra r y to th e p ro fe s s o r's v ie w , w h a t is im p e ra tiv e is a q u a n t u m b l a s t o f d e m o c r a c y s tr o n g e n o u g h to f lu s h o u t t h e A u g e a n S ta b le s o f t h r e e c e n t u r i e s o f a c c u m u l a t e d r a c i s t m u c k
[14] p e o p le h a d to c o n s o lid a te t h e i r v ic to r y .< P > "T h e ta s k is to s h if t t h e b a l a n c e o f f o r c e s i r r e v e r s i b l y in f a v o u r o f p e a c e , d e m o c r a c y , a n d d e v e lo p m e n t. R e a l h e ro e s a n d h e ro in e s w ill e m e r g e fro m th e b a t t l e f o r p e a c e , d e m o c r a c y a n d d e v e lo p m e n t a n d n o t in th e m a s s a c r e o f i n n o c e n t a n d u n a r m e d c h i l d r e n a n d w o m e n , o ld m e n a n d w o m e n ," h e ad d e d .
[15] N o w th a t S o u th A fric a h a d e s ta b lis h e d a n o n - d i s c r i m i n a t o r y m u l t i r a c i a l d e m o c r a c y , S o u th A fric a n s h a d to c o m e to t e r m s w i t h t h e i r c u l t u r a l d iv e r s ity a n d s to p lo o k in g f o r a p a r t h e i d b e h i n d e v e r y b u s h , says F W .
A s h ift o f s u c h m a g n itu d e b rin g s w ith it a v ita l m a n d a te f o r e d u c a tio n b o th as a n e x p lic it s u b je c t a n d a m e th o d o lo g ic a l o rie n ta tio n [1 6 -1 7 ]. T h e ‘b o o m in E n g lis h te a c h in g ’ [18] w h e n m a n y sc h o o ls a re b e in g s la s h e d b y ra tio n a lis a tio n ’ (sa m p le s [4 4 -4 5 ] b e lo w ) m a y se e m a n iro n y o f h is to ry i f w e re c a ll th e e a rlie r v is io n o f E n g lis h as a la n g u a g e o f re s is ta n c e to th e A frik a n e r re g im e s (cf. re p o rts a n d re fe re n c e s in S m it 1994); a lso , c a llin g it th e
‘new
lin g u a f r a n c a ’ s o u n d s q u a in t w h e n it h a s b e e n a g g re s s iv e ly p ro m o te d as su c h w o rld -w id e fo r w e ll o v e r a ce n tu ry .[16] T h e S o u th A fric a n In s titu te F o r D is ta n c e E d u c a tio n (S A ID E ) is a d y n a m ic N G O [n o n g o v e rn m e n t o rg a n is a tio n ] c o m m itte d to in c r e a s i n g d e m o c r a t i c a c c e s s to k n o w le d g e , l e a r n i n g a n d s k ills t h r o u g h t h e a d o p t i o n o f o p e n l e a r n i n g p r in c ip le s a n d d ista n c e e d u c a tio n
[17] lik e to e n ro l as f u ll-tim e o r p a rt-tim e stu d e n ts f o r a P h D , M E d o r B E d , w ith
research
s p e c ia lis a tio n in t h e a r e a o f d e m o c r a c y , h u m a n r ig h t s a n d c itiz e n s h ip e d u c a t io n . < p > W h o s h o u ld a p p ly ? T e a c h e rs , c u rric u lu m sp e c ia lis ts, p u b lish e rs, m a te ria ls d e v e lo p e rs a n d re se a r c h e r s w ith a n in te re s t in h u m a n r ig h t s e d u c a t i o n in te a c h i n g f o r d e m o c r a t i c c itiz e n s h ip[18] E n g lis h to fo re ig n e rs b e c o m e s a b ig b u s in e s s < B > 1 5 /6 /9 7 < /B > B y K a re n M a c G re g o r, E d u c a tio n E d ito r < P > D e m o c ra tic c h a n g e h a s s p a rk e d a c o u n t r y w i d e b o o m in E n g lis h te a c h in g , w i t h d e m a n d f o r S o u th A f r i c a 's n e w l i n g u a f r a n c a in c re a s in g ra p id ly
A g a in p re d ic ta b ly , c o n c e r n s a b o u t th e ‘f r a g ile ’ q u a lity o f th e n e w sy ste m h a v e b e e n ra ise d , e.g., w h e th e r v o tin g rig h ts w ill b e e ffe c tiv e ly u s e d [1 9 -2 0 ], w h e th e r p o litic a l p a rtie s w ill tra n s c e n d ra c ia l d iv isio n s [21 ], w h e th e r p ro p e r tim e sc h e d u le s c a n b e m a in ta in e d [2 2 -2 3 ], w h e th e r d e m o c ra tic c o n c e p ts w ill b e ‘le a r n e d ’ a n d ‘u n d e r s to o d ’ a n d n o t j u s t re d u c e d to ‘b u z z w o r d s ’ p e o p le h a rd ly ‘u n d e r s ta n d ’ [2 4 2 5 ], a n d w h e th e r th e rig h ts o f th e re s t w ill b e re s p e c te d b y th e v o tin g m a jo rity [2 6 -2 7 ]. In te re stin g ly , at le a s t s o m e v o ic e s re c o g n is e d th e le s s o n o f h isto ry , c ite d a b o v e , th a t a m a jo rity m a y a b u s e its ‘n a tu ra l” rig h t to p r e v a il’ [26] a n d e n fo rc e a ‘w in n e r-ta k e s -a ll a p p r o a c h ’ [27]; a n d th a t a m a jo rity ‘r e fe r e n d u m ’ o n a c o m p le x h u m a n is s u e lik e ‘c a p ita l p u n is h m e n t’ is q u ite ‘s u p e rfic ia l’ [28 ], th e m o re so in a c o u n try o n c e n o to rio u s fo r its ‘h a n g in g ju d g e s ’ .
[19] D e m o c ra c y is a f r a g i l e c o n c e p t a n d i f it is to w o r k , it is v ita l th a t e a c h re g is te re d v o te r m a k e s u s e o f th i s f u n d a m e n t a l r i g h t
[20] T h e re a re still a ll s o r t s o f p r o b le m s to b e r e s o lv e d b e f o r e p e o p le u s e t h e i r d e m o c r a t i c r i g h t to e le c t t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s to lo c a l c o u n c ils a n d th e re is a w h o le e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m m e still n e e d e d
[22] W h ile e v e ry e ffo rt m u s t b e m a d e to m e e t t h e d e a d l i n e to e n s u re th a t o u r tra n s fo rm a tio n to fu ll d e m o c r a c y is n o t u n n e c e s s a r i ly d e la y e d , e x tr e m e c a u t i o n m u s t b e e x e r c is e d to e n s u r e t h a t t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s o f a n e w s o c ie ty f o r w h ic h so m u c h h a s b e e n sa c rific e d , a re n o t c o m p r o m i s e d [23] A g a in th e m e d ia re p o rte d la s t w e e k th a t S c h le m m e r f e lt d e m o c r a c y w a s m o v in g to o r a p i d l y in
S o u th A fric a . A t w h a t s p e e d m u s t a p o s itiv e in f lu e n c e m o v e to e lim i n a t e a s c o u rg e ?
[24] O u r e n tire s o c ie ty is
on a steep learning curve
try in g to b u ild a n e w d e m o c ra c y a n d w e m u s t ta k e ste p s to t i g h t e n f in a n c i a l c o n tr o ls , d is c ip lin e o f f e n d e r s a n d s t r e n g t h e n o u r in s t itu tio n s . [25] I ’d lik e to c o n c lu d e u h M r C h a irm a n < # > U h th e b u z z w o r d o f t h e d a y in o u r c o u n t r y isd e m o c r a c y < # > It is t r u t h < # > It is r e c o n c il ia tio n < # > It is n a t i o n b u i l d i n g < # > Y o u d o n ’t u n d e r s t a n d th o s e c o n c e p ts a n d y o u d o n 't u n d e r s t a n d h o w to o p e r a t i o n a l is e th o s e c o n c e p ts [26] th e s e n s e o f c o m m o n c o m m u n ity , o f ‘w e - n e s s ’, is v e ry f r a g i l e a n d c e r ta in ly n o t s tr o n g fo r
w h a t th e A N C c a lls ‘a n o r d i n a r y d e m o c r a c y ’, ie, w h e re a s im p le m a j o r i t y h a s g o t t h e ‘n a t u r a l ’ r i g h t to p r e v a il.
[27] d iv id e d a n d p o l a r is e d c o u n tr y lik e S o u th A fric a s h o u ld n o t t a k e o v e r t h e ty p ic a l E u r o p e a n a n d c la s s ic a l f o r m o f d e m o c r a c y . In ste a d o f th e w i n n e r - t a k e s - a ll a p p r o a c h w e a rg u e d th a t a d e v e lo p in g c o u n try w ith th e c o m p le x itie s a n d h u g e p ro b le m s o f o u rs s h o u ld d e v e lo p a n e w s ty le [28] S u p e rfic ia lly , th e r e f e r e n d u m w h ic h w ill t e s t p u b li c o p in io n , p re s e n ts i ts e lf as th e m o s t
d e m o c r a t i c i n s t r u m e n t to d e t e r m in e t h e f u t u r e o f c a p i t a l p u n i s h m e n t.
A p a rtic u la rly se n sitiv e is s u e in th e o v e ra ll ‘tra n s fo rm a tio n to fu ll d e m o c ra c y ’ [22] is th e n e w ro le o f th e m e d ia lik e p re ss a n d ra d io . R e c a llin g a p a s t o f ‘h id in g a n d m is le a d in g ’ [29 ], th e d a ta s ig n a lle d a d e s ir e h e re to o f o r ‘d iv e rs ity ’ a n d ‘o p e n n e s s ’ [30] a n d fo r ‘lib e ra lis a tio n ’, th e la tte r n a tu ra lly a llu rin g to ‘fo re ig n in v e s to r s ’ h u n g ry f o r ‘c o m m e rc ia l ra d io lic e n c e s ’ [31] in o u r e ra o f m o n s tro u s m e d ia c o n g lo m e ra te s (B a rb e r 1994). Y e t c a u tio n w a s e x p re s s e d a b o u t m e d ia b e c o m in g e x p lo itiv e a n d in tru s iv e e n o u g h to o c c a s io n n e w m o d e s o f ‘in ju s tic e ’ [32].
[29] h o w th e a p a r t h e i d s t a t e 's c o n t r o l o f t h e a i r w a v e s a t t e m p t e d to h id e a n d m is le a d p e o p le a b o u t t h e h o r r o r s o f a p a r t h e i d . A d e m o c ra tic sta te re q u ire s a d i v e r s it y o f v o ic e s to b e h e a rd so th a t c itiz e n s c a n m a k e i n f o r m e d d e c is io n s .
[30] T h e d e m a n d f o r d i v e r s it y o f v o ic e s in a d e m o c ra c y n e e d s to b e t r a n s l a t e d in to a d iv e r s i t y o f r a d i o a n d T V s ta tio n s . T h is m e a n s o p e n in g t h e a ir w a v e s to a ra n g e o f b ro a d
[31] to so o th e th e
impatience
o f f o r e ig n in v e s to r s w h o h a v e b e e n e y e in g S o u th A fric a e v e r sin c e th e fir s t m o v e s to w a rd s d e m o c ra c y in 1990 p ro m is e d a l i b e r a l i s a t i o n < p > < p > M a tis o n n h o p e s th a t th e fir s t i n d e p e n d e n t c o m m e r c ia l r a d i o lic e n c e[32] T o a llo w a t r i a l b y t h e m e d ia w o u ld b e a g r e a t in ju s tic e . W e w o u ld b e u n d e r m i n i n g a c o r n e r s t o n e o f o u r n e w d e m o c r a c y : in n o c e n t u n til p ro v e n g uilty .
T h e w id e s p re a d lin k a g e b e tw e e n d e m o c r a c y a n d e c o n o m ic g ro w th o r d e v e lo p m e n t f o u n d in o u r C S A E d a ta m a y n o t b e su rp risin g , sin c e w e m a y h a v e n o tic e d it a lre a d y in se v e ra l d a ta sa m p le s [1-12, 5, 31]. A m o n g th e m o re tra n s p a re n t in s ta n c e s w e re [3 3 -3 8 ]. S o m e d a ta m ig h t c r e a te th e im p re s s io n th a t th e ‘b u s in e s s ’ c o m m u n ity n e e d s to g iv e its p e rm is s io n f o r d e m o c ra c y to su c c e e d [3 6 -3 8 ] — p ro b a b ly a f a r le s s a b s u rd p ro s p e c t th a n y o u m ig h t im a g in e i f ‘e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t’ is to b e th e y a rd s tic k o f ‘d e m o c r a tic ’ p ro g re s s (c o m p a re sa m p le s [1 -2]). N o tic e th e fa v o u rite c a p ita lis t m e s s a g e (a k in to R e a g a n is m a n d T h a tc h e ris m ) th a t th e g o a l o f ‘b u s in e s s ’ a n d ‘e c o n o m ic s ta b ility ’ is ‘a b e tte r fu tu re f o r
all’
[35] a n d n o t j u s t fo r th e ric h , a lth o u g h th e s itu a tio n to b e ‘s ta b ilis e d ’ in S o u th A fric a c u rre n tly c o n s is ts o f sh a rp e c o n o m ic in e q u a litie s th a t n a tu ra lly p ro m o te in sta b ility . A t le a s t th e ‘tra d e u n io n s ’ a re w e ll a w a re th a t sp e c ia l e f fo rts a re u rg e n tly n e e d e d i f a ‘liv e e c o n o m y ’ is to su sta in ‘d e m o c ra c y in w o r k p la c e s ’ [38] a n d th a t th e F o u n d a tio n ’s p io u s p r o c la im a tio n o f ‘G ro w th fo r A l l’ [39] s h o u ld b e c r itic a lly v ie w e d a g a in s t s im ila r slo g a n s o f R e a g a n is m a n d T h a tc h e ris m , c ite d ab o v e.[34] to a d d re s s lo n g -n e g le c te d p ro b le m s o f d e v e lo p m e n t a n d re c o n stru c tio n . < P > T h e re is a n e w e m p h a s is o n th e n e e d f o r d e m o c r a t i c g o v e r n m e n t in A f r i c a to go h a n d - i n - h a n d w i t h e c o n o m ic a d v a n c e .
[35] S o c ia l s ta b il ity a n d th e p r o s p e c t o f a b e t t e r f u t u r e f o r a ll, a re th e b e d ro c k n o t j u s t o f a s ta b le d e m o c r a c y , b u t a lso o f a s ta b l e e c o n o m y . < P > F o r b u s in e s s , o p p o r t u n i t i e s a b o u n d
[36] p o s s ib ly a t t r a c t i n g b u s in e s s s u p p o r t . A t th e v e r y le a s t it w o u ld i n j e c t d y n a m i s m in to th e d e m o c ra c y w e h a v e se t up.
[37] I n itia tiv e is a n o rg a n is a tio n fo rm e d b y 130 c o m p a n ie s to e n h a n c e t h e b u s in e s s c o n t r i b u t i o n to G r o w t h , D e v e lo p m e n t a n d D e m o c r a c y in S o u th A fric a . A k e y e le m e n t o f its p ro g ra m m e is to w o rk th ro u g h its m e m b e rs to c r e a t e lo c a l e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t
[38] as b u s in e s s a n d e m p lo y e r s w e say sp re a d th e c u l t u r e o f i n v e s tin g in o u r p e o p le < # > I n v e s ti n g in o u r liv e e c o n o m y a n d b r i n g d e m o c r a c y to o u r w o r k p l a c e s < # > L e t u s m a k e n o m is ta k e < # > S t r o n g a n d d e m o c r a t i c t r a d e u n io n s a r e p e r m a n e n t a n d d e s ir a b l e fe a tu re s
[39] L a b o u r ’s h e a d - o n r e s p o n s e to th e S o u th A fric a F o u n d a tio n 's G r o w t h f o r A ll s t r a t e g y is e v id e n c e o f a tte m p ts b y th e d e m o c ra tic m o v e m e n t to g e t its a c t t o g e t h e r a n d r e g a i n lo s t g r o u n d .
J u s t o n e o c c u rre n c e in th e c u rre n t C S A E to u c h e d o p e n ly u p o n th e a n ta g o n is m b e tw e e n o f ‘d e m o c ra c y ’ v e rs u s ‘c a p ita lis m ’, a n d o n ly to a tte n u a te it in w a y s th a t w o u ld b e c o n g e n ia l f o r th e jo u r n a l
‘Finance
Week’:
[40] flin c h e d w h e n M a n u e l q u o te d m a rk e t m o v e r b illio n a ire G e o rg e S o ro s as sa y in g u n b r i d l e d c a p i ta li s m w a s th e e n e m y o f d e m o c r a c y . W h a t S o ro s a c tu a lly said, F in a n c e W e e k su m m a rise d , w a s th a t e x c e s s iv e i n d iv id u a lis m in t h e p u r s u i t o f w e a l t h w o u ld
B y c o n tra st, a fra n k p ic tu re e m e r g e d se v e ra l tim e s w h e n w e q u e r ie d th e k e y -w o rd ‘r a tio n a lis a tio n ’ . In th e o ry , th e te rm ‘r a tio n a lis a tio n ’ s o u n d s re a s s u rin g b y a s s o c ia tio n w ith ‘r a tio n a l’, a tra it m o s t p e o p le w o u ld lik e to b e lie v e th e y p o s se s s a n d a re a s o n a b le im p e ra tiv e fo r b u s in e s s , as s u g g e ste d in [41]; a n d it a p p a r e n tly s o u n d s m o re so o th in g a n d ‘n e u tr a l’ th a n ‘p r iv a tis a tio n ’ [42 ], n o t to m e n tio n h o n e s tly r e a lis tic te rm s lik e ‘lu s tin g f o r p r o f it’ o r ‘s ip h o n in g m o n e y fro m w o rk e rs to s h a re h o ld e rs ’ . B u t m o s t o f o u r C S A E d a ta in d ic a te d th a t m o s t o f its p ra c tic a l c o n s e q u e n c e s are, o n th e c o n tra ry , a la rm in g [4 3 -4 7 ].
[41] e m p lo y e e s a lo n g th e n e w s tra te g ic o b je c tiv e s. H is p ro b le m is cle ar: "W e h a v e in h e rite d o v e r 16 0 0 0 w o rk e rs ; ra tio n a lis a tio n is n o t j u s t a b o u t n u m b e r s, b u t ra th e r a b o u t c r e a t i n g h ig h le v e ls o f e f fic ie n c y t h r o u g h a p p r o p r i a t e sk ills.
[42] p r i v a t i s a t i o n w o u ld p r o v o k e k n e e - j e r k o p p o s it io n f r o m t h e l a b o u r m o v e m e n t a n d th a t a m o r e n e u t r a l w o r d , su c h as ra tio n a lis a tio n , w o u ld b e m o r e p a l a t a b l e .
[43] J o b c u ts , p l a n t c lo s u r e s , d is p o s a ls a n d m e rg e rs h a v e a b o u n d e d as g lo b a l p la y e rs a tte m p t to r a tio n a lis e th e ir b u s in e s s e s a n d b e c o m e m o re fo c u se d .
[44] T h e t e a c h e r s w e re u n a n i m o u s th a t th e u n c e r t a i n t y o v e r ra tio n a lis a tio n h a d ta k e n its to ll o n m o r a l e a n d th a t th is w a s m a n if e s t in g its e l f in c la s s r o o m s a n d a f f e c ti n g t h e i r w o r k .
[45] In te rm s o f th e ra tio n a lis a tio n p ro g ra m m e 6 ,0 0 0 t e a c h e r s a r e to lo se t h e i r j o b s in W e s te rn C a p e sc h o o ls th is y e a r.< P >
Staff cuts
d o n o t e n d th e re .[46] In th e s e d ay s w h e n p u b l i c m e d ic a l s e rv ic e s a r e b e in g s e v e re ly c o m p r o m i s e d b y th e ra tio n a lis a tio n o f fu n d s a n d fa c ilitie s , th e re a re m a n y lo y a l, c o m m itte d p ro fe s s io n a l m e d ic a l p e rs o n n e l w h o a re w o rth y o f sp e c ia l c o m m e n d a tio n
[47] M r L io n e l W o ld s o n , g e n e ra l m a n a g e r o f th e
Child Welfare Society
in C a p e T o w n , sa id y e ste rd a y : "W e 'v e r a tio n a lis e d to th e p o in t w h e re w e c a n d e al o n ly w i t h a b u s e d a n d n e g le c te d c h i l d r e n u n d e r t h e a g e o f 12.[48] T h e p o lic e s e r v ic e o v e r s p e n t R 6 0 4 - m illio n , m a in ly b e c a u s e o f th e ra tio n a lis a tio n o f p o lic e s e rv ic e s .
