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THÈSE

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010 !(2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

01010 !! !! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 03

01014 !!" 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 00

01015 )+#! " !!" 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 06

01016 !!" 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 07

014 ! " !(2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 40

01410 ( ! !!,

" 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 44

01414 $ " !" !2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 45

01415 $ " 8 ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 47

01416 $ " 9 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4:

01417 2 ! " " !,

(2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 53

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 54

! "#

410 ;< !" "" 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 57

414 ! = 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5:

41410 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5:

41414 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 60

41415 +!2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 67

41416 " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6

41417 " !" !2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 74

415 > " " " ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 @5

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 @7

" $%

510 < 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 @:

51010 $= !2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 @:

51014 $= !2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :4

51015 *! " ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :5

51016 $2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ::

(4)

514 " " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3

51410 !2 ; = !" 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3

51414 " ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 @

51415 A ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

51416 $ !" ! " (

!2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

51417 B ="! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5

5141@ = ! !2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :

5141: = ! " ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1033

5141 = < 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1034

515 " ; 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 103

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1005

& ! ' #

610 C )2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1007

61010 C 2 ;( ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1007

61014 $ !, " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1050

61015 " ! ; !# !" !

!"< 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 105

61016 / ! " 1 1066

614 C +!2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 106@

61410 )!2 " ;!# !"< 1 1 1 1 106

61414 /" ( < "!# 1 1 1 1 1 1070

61415 $# !" ! +!2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1076

61416 )! !" ! +!2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 107@

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10@3

# ( ' $

710 (!2 ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10@0

714 '& )& !" 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10@4

71410 D " !"2 !! + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10@5

71414 D9 " & )&1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10@6

71415 $<"" " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10@7

715 ="! ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10@

71510 - ! ="! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10@

71514 " ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10@

71515 " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10:0

71516 ="! + 1 1 1 1 1 10:5

71517 B !!" 9 1 1 1 1 10:7

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10:7

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010 / " "# ,"1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 04

014 C + "# 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 05

015 &-$ ! = 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 07

016 &8 *D+ ! !2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0@

017 $!" $&&$*,&&& "" A (1 1 0@

01@ * "E 2 "E( 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0:

01: $" ! ( " ,

! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

01 " "# 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

01 + 9 "2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

0103 C " ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 43

0100 " ""11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 40

0104 $" " "" "# 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 44

0105 " ! *$1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 46

0106 DF = ! 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 47

0107 < " ! ! " ! *$1 1 47

010@ "" A (1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4:

010: B 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4:

010 =! " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4

010 < ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4

0143 " " "" 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4

0140 2 ! " ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 53

410 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5

414 " + (8 " 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5

415 + (8 " 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 63

416 $ 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 60

417 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 64

41@ 9 "" ! " (8 ,

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 66

41: !" "" ,

2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 67

41 +!2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6@

41 $ ( "1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6:

(8)

4103 " ( 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6:

4100 !2 + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6

4104 D ! +!2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6

4105 - = ""2 " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 73

4106 - = = 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 70

4107 $ ( " "" ="! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 75

410@ " !2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 77

410: $ 9 !2 !"2 1 1 1 1 1 1 7@

410 $ 9 !2 !"2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7:

410 < ( " ! !2

!" !( 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7

4143 B !# 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 @3

4140 2 " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 @0

4144 $ !2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 @4

4145 B !2 ! " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 @4

510 / " ! !2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 @

514 & !" ! !2 " !2 1 1 1 :0

515 & !" ! !2 " !2 1 1 1 1 1 1 :4

516 + +1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :5

517 ( !11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :6

51@ D ! 2 " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :@

51: < ( " ! !2

!" !( 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3

51 - = 2 = 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

51 !" " "" ! 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 4

5103 D !" !2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7

5100 C 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 @

5104 " ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :

5105 " !2 = ! 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

5106 $# !2 " ! !2 1 1 1 1 1 3

5107 $ ! " ! " ( !,

2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4

510@ & !2 " ( !2 11 4

510: " ! ="! ! " ! <1 1 1 1 1 5

510 / ="! ! !2 !

" ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6

510 ( ! ! !,

2 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7

5143 !" !2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 @

5140 C ! 1 1 1 1 1 :

5144 & "" ! !2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1033

5145 / " < 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1030

(9)

5146 D! " !2 " ( !"

!2 2,! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1035

5147 < ! " "( !" !,

2 2,! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1036

514@ )! !" !2 " "

< !1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1037

514: / !" !2 "

=+1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 103@

514 !" "1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 103:

514 C

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 103:

5153 < !2 " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 103

5150 9 " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 103

5154 (#! = 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 103

5155 B ( " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1003

5156 D! " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1000

5157 ! 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1000

515@ " 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1004

610 < ! " !2 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 100@

614 D< "# " 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 100:

615 / "

!1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1040

616 - ""2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1045

617 !" !2 !2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1046

61@ D! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1047

61: ( 1 1 1 1 1 1 104@

61 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 104

61 !"

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 104

6103 (

¼

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 104

6100 (11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1053

6104 $ ="! !1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1050

6105 D ( " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1054

6106 ""2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1055

6107 $ " 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1057

610@ " 2 = ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1057

610: 2 ! " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 105@

610 D

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 105:

610 * !"

11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 105:

6143 2 ! " "" " ! 1 105

6140 $ "!# " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 105

6144 C 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1060

6145 ! 2 # " "

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1064

6146 C ( !

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1065

6147 C 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1066

(10)

614@

2 # " 1 1 1 1067

614: / ! " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 106:

614 !2 !2 2 = 1 1 106

614 )!2 !" ! +!2 " 1 1 106

6153 )!2 !" ! +!2 " ,

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1073

6150 - ="! " ! " ( 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1074

6154 /" ( " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1074

6155 /" ="! ! " 9 " !"1 1 1075

6156 B " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1076

6157 )!( !# !" ! ( 1 1 1 1 1 1 107:

615@ )! ( !# !" ! (

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 107:

615: G 2" !< "!# "

!" ! +!2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 107

710 $" + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10@5

714 " " !EH "" 8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10@7

715 $" =I !,8 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10@@

716 ! 9 2" " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10@:

717 ) !!"11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10@

71@ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10:3

71: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10:3

71 " ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10:0

71 " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10:4

7103 " ! ( + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10:6

7100 / " ! " 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10:6

7104 D" ! ( 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10:7

*10 / " ! = !2 " (

2 !2 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 100

(11)

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" !" ! =" !+ ,

! " G V

U " X !

" !" 11

!!" 2 " ,

" 1 & ! "( 8 ! ""!

= !" ; +#! + ! 1 " I !!,

" " "<2 1 A " " ! " !

! "" !2 "+2 2 1 (8 !,

" 1 (8 !! T !

"( !! !" = " " "!#

"+2 ! 8 1 ! 2 (8 !" ,

"!# " 2 !" ! 2

+!2 #2 !<1D # ,

9 "" ! !2 " (

(25)

559 .6, -

D 2 " 2 2 !

!!"1 D " "<" "! !!,

" 1

" ! = !" 2 !2 !#

!" (8 " 1 - 2 = !" # " !,

"

2 !!" " 1 )Z E

" ! " !" !""

I !!"1 & !" !

!" 9 1 ! X X

" ! !2 # " 1"

!" 2 " ! ! = ,

( M 1 57! = # %

# ! " Q&-$Q< 0151

015U( ")* +

D ! ! N N 4330 ""

!!" " ! 8 !2 !,!2 ,

! ( *D + !(+ 1

8 = " " ! 1 " !

" ( " ! ""

8 !# 0 1 " ! ! ",

! 63 1 " " "

2 "" " ! 1 =#! "2" ,

! " "" " 2!!( !(+1 !

!"! " " ! !(+"# !!(1

" + 1 < !!

" "" !# !2 +

< 0161 & ! "( " " !G!

! !,!2 1 D !

+ "( 1 "" 8 " "2

(26)

016U ), "# '

= ! ! 1 = !" !!"

= 9 A ( * ! 1 & + ,

"" !" 2 ( $&&$*,&&&( MZ

4330 = ! !" < 0171 !"

=" ,! !( " "E 2 1

017U ))#))) "-".

9 "E 2 =" " ! 2

" ,! 1< 01@" ! !" 1 ,

! "E 2 ( "E( 2

" = < 01@(1 A ",

"2 073 " =

2 "E( " " ! E @ = @

1

" ! =! "E( 03 2

!=! " ! 53

1" !# " ,! !,

" ( 9

!"< " ! < 01:1 !( ( "

(27)

+, +*,

01@U # / 0/1

& "( ! ( ! 2 ( ,

( 1 " ,! !" 2"

! 2 =2 " !! 1

! ( ! " ,! "(

( 1 = " ,! !( " ! (

!" 2 ( 1

!" . "G ( !,

" "2 2 $- $" C 2 -+ 1 * !

"" " !( !"# $-

!!" ! !" "2 1

"2 " Q8+MQ= ( !",

! 1 A 9 (2 " !

" = " ,! " ! 1 ,

= +" & X 2 F X

"1

!!" 2 +2 !!,

! (8 !" " !2

!"1 ! " ! !" (!"

!" !,! 11 " 8< "

!G! (8 !" 1 D "" 2 !2

(8 2 =G! ! 1D " ! (8

G !!! < ! # "

!!"1

(28)

01:U "

'+ '+ 1 07 9 2 " ",

" # +" ( 1

=" "" 2 , !!! "" ",

# 1 9 ""%2 " " !" 2

1 "" 2 " 2 !

"2 " '+ 1 07;

010

014

;

!"

#

!"

#

+ "

2 "

2 !

"

"

"

!

!" 2

# " 2

" 1D W

"

" " E

!" 2 1A" "#

" 1D (8 E !"

2 " ( 1 " " " ,

"# 1 ""2 !" 2 2

(29)

9 "2 ""

< 011

4 électrodes cellules cellules subissant

une diélectrophorèse positive cellules subissant

une diélectrophorèse négative

01U 2

1 06 "" " " "" ,

+ !+ @31 "

! (2 1 ! 2 "

2 1 " ! 2 " !

!" 2 " "" 2 1,

8 ! 2 !" 2 " "

1 47 " ! !

" 2 = 2 " 1!" = 07B

" 2 0 1 < 01"

1

cellule

électrodes

(30)

9 "2 ! " " *M

10:1 ! ! "" 1 "" ! ,

2

< 01031 ""2 !" 2

!"

2 "

$ ""2 < 0103(1

" !! "2 " "" 2

1 = 2 = H

2 " 2 0 1

033 " !" 2 @3 %&'

1

"" !! " % + !1 9

"" 2 !( 1A"

"2 " =" " !"

1

électrodes

cellule

+,)&!

électrodes

cellule électrorotation

+*,-

0103U &

"" ! !+ !!" ! 1

"" ! " !"""*M*,

M0:61 "" "+2 "" " " ! ;,

2 ! = F ""2 , #

" "" " ! 1)# (8 "+!,

= = (8 ! =

1 2 F = " "

! = < 01001 " ! =

(8 " " " 1 2 9

" (8 - 1 01 D ""

! " " 1 !

"" ! 2 T (8

(31)

" ! !( *M 1 0:1

P

cellule rayon lumineux

F

Position d’équilibre

laser

mouvement mouvement

cellule

0100U 4

+#! " ! !" ( @ ""

M+ K" 1 43331 "" ! = ,

" <( "2 "" ! ! (8 1*

"( !" (8 " ! 1

! !" " "" 03 03

O 041 ! 9! ** 14333(

9 !=! 1 () 06

!" "

"" ( "++# 5 !# 1

D ! (!" ""

"# " !!" 1 ""

" ! " T ! I !!"1

"" ! S 2 !" " ""

"" ( 9

" ! 1 & " (

""1 ** 14333(" "2 "#

" ""1 " " ",

# 1 "" " ! " ( !"

< 01041 "

" !"+G !"" "" *

143331$"" , 9 !

2 $ 101*"" " ! "

"(#! ; < 2 " !" 1

< !" ( 1

" "( !

"" "+2 ! "!(2 1*"#

+# !+ ! " " "# !

(32)

cellules “bloquées“

par diélectrophorèse positive

cellule manipulée par laser trapping

0104U

2 " ! < 2 " "

41

5/5 , :. .(

6,

! "" I !,

!"1 ! "" = +" !

!!"; (8 ! !! 1

2"" (8 ! " ! 2<

9 ""2 " " (8 !"1 & "(

X X ! 9 (8 !" 1

* 9 " G ""22 !!

( 1

!""" ! (,

8 !" !! 1 ! "" !

"" !2 (8 ! ! 2 11

! !! " ! ! !"

(8 ,(8 ! ,(8 " ,(8 1 * ! =

" !# T!! " " ! " !" ! ,

#2 (8 !! 1 J( ! !

( < +"# " 1 A !% I !!,

" " " !" "!# ! 8

(33)

!(2 1* "" ="! "

"" 2 2 ! " ( ! = !# !",

! 1 "2" ! ! !! !

"!# == ! 1 "

2 ""# ! 1 &" ! ! ,

(8 !! ( 2 " =

" ( ! 1

5// :. 6 ..6 ; :.

!" !2 *$

"" ! )$)

( $"

1 "2" 1 ! <

2 ! ," ""

# ( (8 ! 1 " 2 '

!( (8 " ! ,1

< 0105 " ! ( 2 " ! !

*$1 "" ! *$

F = " , ( 1) " W

""2 ! " +"# " !

"( ( ""2

=!

F# Æ ";

*

+

Æ 015

;

!

+,* &- "

Æ F =! =!

A "# 2 " 2 ! ""

( " 1 * " !G! * Æ

! " G ! ! + 1

"2 "!# " ! !,

" " ( 1 D +"2

=# 2 ! !!# 1

!./%.0!12

3$!! 452 412 +4.12, 462+4.6.

2,4782+4.7/0 82 ,

(34)

Base du cantilever

Cantilever Diode laser

Photodiode Spot laser

Actionneur piézoélectrique à

3 ddl

Echantillon à caractériser

0105U 4 #5

*< ! F = =!

1 F " ", 2 2,

1 " " F ",

1 " ! " " "

21 ( ! F = 1

2*$ " ! =" "

!" 1 " ! !! ! (8

!" 1 9 !# ( " F =

""2 F# 1 A " !

", <= 1 ! ,

" " !G! 1 A !

F = Æ

¼

" "1 Æ G " !"

!# " 1 " ",

" 1 2 ! (8

""2 " 8 ! " 1 #

""2 "2 F = !

, < 01061 D " = !# (

20151 ! (8 = !#

G ( " 1D =

! " ) )4330 ( = 733 !# 1

A ! !( = = " ! !

2 B D R 1 *$

106A 104A) 104J!04-001

T )$ "

(35)

Base du cantilever

Cantilever

Echantillon à caractériser

0106 U6+

D = 9 !! " ! ! ",

! *$1 = (8 "( +

1 0 1 0 * 1 43351 * " "( !

" Z " " ( ( 1

( ( " "" 2 !2( 1 <=

=! !! < 01071 F =

"! "!"" 1 !"

2 (+ " ! " 1

Force extérieure appliquée Cantilever

Nano-tube en cabone

Pointe du cantilever

0107U ! " "#5

5/1 :. 6 <= -:

8 ! " "2 "" ,

! "" ! W "

2 1 8 ! "

"" " " 1

!2 !, 1 !( (

9# +" 8 1& 03 43" !2

(36)

; 8 < !,

1 - 2 ! (

8 !G! 2 "" "+2 9 1

* 8 < 9 "" S!!,

2 <1 D 8 !, 9 "" S

!" 2 ! 1 9 "E,

" "2 !( "

9 ""2 R 0@1

"2 8 < ! " + "

. + ="! ";

.+

016

D 8 !, ="! ";

.

&

017

01@

;

!(!+ "

!( " " !

&

D !!" 8 ! "G (

! " !!"1 " = !" 8

2" ! " "( !

""2 (8 !"1D "" 2 8 !

!"( " ! 2 " G

!G! !" 2 " 1

+!2 ( +" "

8 ! ! ! " ! 1

!8 8 (

!" !( 1 ( ! 2 ",

"" G % ! 1 8

< 9 " T "(

9 =# "

1 !8 9 "

I !!"

1 2

8 W ! 1 " 9

!" = ! " "

! T 1

(37)

!# = !( = "+" " 2"

8 "E 1 A" A (1

" = 1!

"( " 2 8 "E " 1

F = ! " " " " 1

" 2" " " " "2

9 " I !!"1

010@ U4 "- ".

010:U 7

5/9 :. 6 > -,.

- 2 *$ 8 "

" ! = !!2 = ,

(38)

! " =" ! ( ! 9

( 2 2 "" =!

< 0101

+ - d

V F

010U +

!" 2 ! " G

="! !! ;

%

01:

;

!

9 " !

2

% " !

A!< < !

<= !(

1 D " ! !(

< 0101 2( 2

( 2 "" 2 !" 1

* " !G! < ""2 " !2

! !( 2 "" 1 "2(

2 ( 2 ""2 +#! !" "

1 *% 2 " !

! " 2( "( ! !"

(39)

+ - V K

x

010U !

"" " N 1 4335 " "" ! "

= ! !!2 = I !!"1

[ " !" = ! "

2 < 01431 * ! "

" " ( ! 2 1 & "(

I = = ! !

1 ! !! 9 1

! " ! ! 9 " " !

= 1 " ! "2 " = ! " !

! 1* " / !

9 1 !" ! / T% " ! "1

! 330 )

346 )

1

" ! 8263 )

33 )

1

0143 U

(40)

5/ .- , .6 :. 6 ,

.

D " ! "

! " !(2 1 * ( "

" # " !!! "

2 < !! 1 2 "

< 2 " G " " !(2 1

(

" !! 9 +" " " !(,

2 2 " !G! "" " ! 1

9 +" " " 2 ! 9 ",

"2 " !" !2 !( 1""

"2 " ! " !" "

2( 1 ( !# "+2 !" ! " !"

"2 " "( ! =" +2

""2 " !" 1D =" ""

" ! " !" 1

2 " " G " " < 0140

2 ! " ! % " !" 1 # 2

Déplacement

d Force

mesurée F

δ d δ F

0140U

" ! " ;

U + 1 ( 2; " !

2 " ! !2

! V

U ; " " Æ 2 " !

(41)

U ; 2< !=! ! V

U ; "" !G! !

" ! 2 2 " "

" !"1 "( " ! V

U ; " 2 Q ",

! %Q1 2 2 "

" 1V

J( ! !(2 " "

"( " " ! " !" 1 * =

# " ! " ! " 1!

! "X # ; ! 1

9 " ="!# ;

U V

U " " " ! Æ%

! ( 2 " " !

1

A !(2 " ! " !

+"2 ! E 1D ,

" "" ! 9 2 " 1* "

( " ! ! "Æ%

1

" ! 9 2 " ="!# ;

U "" ! %

" ! ( !" V

U 1

" ! 2 !"

" " ! %

2 " ! %

!"

" 1 " " !! 2 "

!" "" "( 1D

! ( ! !" " 2 " !

" "( 1

Q(Q " " !(2 "

( "( " ! 1

D " 2 ( 2 !

( ! !G! 2 " ! ( " !,

" 1 *" ! Z

(42)

" ( ! ! # ( "

!" 1 " ! !(2

+"2 ! 2 2 ) " )1 ( ! " !"

" T " 9 ! " 1

2 " G " ! ( ! !"

" !" " " !( 2" !2 1 - 2

( ! " !" " 8

="(#! ! " !2 "# ! ,

! 1 D " ! ( " 1

"( " ! 9 ""

" ! " !( !2

!2 1 'I = " ! 2 "( ,

! ! ! !

!" 1 D"2 " "

"( 2" ! ""! !2 " !(

" 1 'I "

!( G "# ! ( = 1 "

"( " ! !" 2 " ! "

" ! 1

.,

* " " 2 2 ! !

!(2 1 !! "# ! !" ",

"2 !!"1 !+ T

!" ! " !" "" !!,

"1 !!" 2

!!" "" !" (8 !"2 "

9 2 !2 "+2 !2 1 !# "+2

2 !" ! (8 9 = 2 !"+

( ! 1* 2 ( " (

F "" !!

T ! "( 1 $ 9 !( (

"+2 !" ! !! 1

" ! ! " !

! " !! 1 *

"( 9 !# !" ! !! (

=1 " " !(2 " 8

( ! 1 D " ,

! !(2 " !" 2 "

! " ! " ( ! T "

" ! +"2 ! ) )1 " ! (,

(43)

! " ! " !( 1 ) " !( "

( " ! " "( ! "

2 ( " " ! 1 ""

2 ! " ! " !! !

2 ( " !( 1 ! " !( !(

"# ! """ 1 (8 G

" " "" 1 "

2 " G " "

( " ! 1 " "" 2 2

! " 1

(44)
(45)

8 +

(

'

+

+

!+

D " 8 !! 1 !G!

# ( ! 1D 8

! "" ! ( ! 1

! "G 1 <,

+ " # = " G ! ; 92 ,

" "

" 9" G ,

9 ! ! =2 "

" !!! 1 " G 9

! 8 " ( (8 1 * 2

< " G !2 +!2 2 2

! 1* " 8 ! 1 !

+ "" = " " "!# "+2 !

8 2 !2 11 * = !" " !"

!2 !" " G " " ! "

" ! " ! "

" 1D % ! 8 "!# "+2 !2 2

(46)

12 # (

1 " X,

" ( " ( 1 A 2

" "" " 2

"" ( 1 ! " G " " "!#

"+2 !2 +!2 2 11 " G "

! !"+ " < "!# "+2 " "

"" "1 < " G " +"

" "!# "+2 1 " "

"!# "+2 ! 8 2 ! !

""( 1* = !" +!2 ! "

2 ! = "1

! "" + 2!

!2 "# 1 "2 !( ""

"( 1 " !# "" ! "# ! !

" !2 ! + 1 " ! ! "

"! S = ! "# 1

!! " 2 ! "# 1

!""" (

2 1 D +" "" ( ! " ",

"2 11 " "2

" ! " ( 2 "!

! ( 1 " 2 !,

2 , " (1

!"+ " " 2

" "# 1

!" ! " ! !

! " " 2 1 ",

"

1 " !

" ! ! " ! , ! " ! 1

D ! !(2 " (!(

1 ! ( " !,

(2 " "( G ! ! ( !

2 ! "# 1> ! !

2 " " " ! ! ,

"+2 " ! 9 " ! (

! ! 2 2 ! " 1

+ " # (

! 2 !2 !" " !! ,

1!# !(2 !

;! 0

(47)

" !( # 1 ) "

!! $ 14330O! 1

00O! N! 4333 " !+" !#!# 1

J 1 0@)! 1 0@ + -,B 1 03R

1 00K -,B 00 !" ' ,$

' 0 O! 14334 /(= *!041

" 410 2 "

! 1 $2 +!2 2 2 !

! 2 1 D 2 ""

! 2 " 2 1

//5 -2 .

2 " "" 2 2 =

(8 " " 0 (8 1 )

2 !" ! 1 "(

(8 2 2 !! ! 2 1

2 1<"!!

" < 4101 !" 2

2," ! " H 1(8

" 2 1 2 =

M E1 =# "

!!# 1 D ! " 9 2

!"" 1* "( +"# 2 " 2,

1

" = (8 1 1

234-

" G ="! " 2410 2 +"#

< 1 4333 *" 04;

U =" 2 G

V

U (8 G V

U (8 " " X ="

2 1

+"# < ;

(48)

y z

Source acoustique (haut parleur) Objet en lévitation Capteur laser

Partie mise en vibration Hauteur de lévitation h

Générateur de signaux

410 U(

0

5

.

2

410

;

5 T !2

.

!

2

" ! !

!" (

= (8 ="! ";

0 414

" G ! ="!#

1

41 1 4333 ! 2 "( " ! ",

!# "X 2 1 9 2 =

MJE!! 2 """" " ,

! 2 (8 1 * "

! " ( 1* = !" 2 2

2 !! 43 !# 733" 405

2 2 = " 07

1 43331 ! ! O!M 4334 ! 2

!# = 1

1

D < " (8 " 2

(49)

!G! 9 1 """(

< "G + (8 1 "( !+

2 2 !< "" < " < 4101 D

<" ! " ! (8 " "

! (8 " ! < 4141 * (8

(

=!"

1" !# !" " !

!" 1 > " ! " !

(8 1 " ! (8 + !G! 2 ""

2 1 " ! (8 ""

= 1

""2 1

z y

Fz

mg Fy

Sens de déplacement de l'objet Sens de déplacement

de l'onde

G

414U 4 ' ",

2 " "" ! +

! = 1 "G ! "" !

" " +" 1 " = 1

J!J!0 ""+ =! !" ! ,

" " !! 1 < 415 "

( 2 ! + 1 D = 2 =

2 2 " " "2 !1

" ! ! " H 2

07 1 " 9 "2 !

2 1 *< 2 , ""

=! " (( 2

"" 1 "2 (M ! :3 4"

" "2 ( !1 " ! "

" ! 2 1 !" G

G ( "2 ! !=!! 43 1

!=! 33

" " ' !" ,

( 43

1J!0! ="! =2

" ! !# !" ( "

(50)

415 U' ",

" ! ! "" " " 1

J J 1 0: "" ! !" !

" 1 < 416 " !2 ! 1 ,

=+ !! !( 8 73

1 + = ! 2 +

! 1 !# 7@"" 4@'1D =

2 <= ! " ""

67

Æ

1 D = " !

= 2 4@ 1

" (2! %

1 * ( = = 2 "

""" " 1 <

! 5333 -

1

+

2 " G ! ;

U V

U !" " (8 2 V

U " "2( = " V

U = " "" (8 "

9 2 V

U "" ! =

(51)

V 2 cos:t Stator

Rotor Actionneurs

V 1 sin:t

50 µm Sens de rotation 4

416U 0 1

2 ! ;

U !" ! =V

U " ! (8 V

U 2 ! (8 ,

2 1

/// -2 -,.

D 2 " !

" 2 "

1 2 "" "" 1D ,

!!( ""!" 2

1(8

( 2 ""

1 < (

2 " < 4171 (2

! ( ! " (

1

(8 ( !

"

(8 !!(1 2 ""

1D ( ,

! 1*< ! ("

" 2 ! !" 2

1 " ( 2

";

(52)

y z

x y

o V o V

V 1 sinXt -V 1 sinXt

V 1 sinXt -V 1 sinXt

Electrode Objet en lévitation Electrode

o V

417U( 0 1

415

;

2 !

2

"

,

,

D = G < " 2 "( !"

2 )! ' ! 4333;

U !! = ""2 (8 G

" ( 2( 2 V

U 2 G 1

="! " ;

%67

416

W !

,

,

"

2 12 416 2 !! "

(53)

T!! " !!

2 " ( 1

D 2 ! 2

" < 1 * " 2 2 (

2 " !" ( 1 " 2 415

1 =" ";

%67

417

W " Q1Q " 1 "" " "

2 ,

2 2417 ;

41@

A# 2 "" !"2 2 !" ,

2 2

" G

!!

" G

1* 2

" G

1 2 +#! ( ! ,

1 2 !

1

" "" ! " 1

9 =" 2 (8 = "

" ! " ( < 41@

!# ! "" = %

%

;

/

%

41:

/

%

41

/

/

"( ( (8

" 1

! " ! ,

2 (8 2 2 !! "

2 2 81 ""2 !"<

!! " 21 +" " !"+ "

(54)

y

y z

d 1

d 2

Electrode supérieure

Electrode inférieure

41@U- "3 ",

2 " ! !"+ " ,

! ""2 ( 2 1 ,

2 ! !! 2 " 2 (8

!( 2 2 " (8 1

( !( = ! 1 43331 D "

2 !" " "!# +"

! 103J 10@1! !

" ! ! !# ( " ! "1D %

! !" 2 " "

" ! ! 2

1

! "" 2

A A 1 031 &

!" 0333 Æ

/ 2 " !

1 A 9 "( 9

"( 2 2 ,

" ( " " !1 < 41: "

!2 1 > ! " =

7

,6

8 (8 12 ""2

0331 2

! " !" "

82 81 "

" " !" !"

2 ! 1 "

" "" # 1 (

" ( X +" &D 2 ! D

" "1 X (

= 1

(55)

x y

z

vcos:t

vcos : t -vcos:t

-vcos:t

o V Electrode

Electrode

Objet en lévitation

41:U 5

+

2 " G ! ;

U ! "G

"+" !"V

U !" (8 9 ! # 2"

2 2 V

U ( " " 9 2 " 2 ,

1

2 ! ;

U V

U ! V

U # ! 2 "

! 2 (8 V

//1 -2 - 7

D +!2 (8 "

F= E

1 ! F= (8

! 1 2 ! (

F=2 "< (8 1< 41"

" +!2 (8

" +! 1

(56)

Source du flux de gaz Flux d'écoulement détourné par l'objet en lévitation Objet en lévitation

41 U( '

+!2 " "" -

1 ""

!2 F 2 !2 !

F !" ( !

! 12 - ="! ";

0

.7

.' 23--& 41

;

0 " = " F

. F

7 !

!

'

2 41 2 " !

2 0 7 8 2 41 ., '

1* ! F ! " = !,

2 1

"" " ="2 " (

+!2 1 2 F= E (8 =

, " "(

!" 1

T " (

" 9

1( "(

"

I 9 - 1 "2( F=

1

9 2 (8 F= " = " !

5!&!!"!" );<

3! & =% !

"!#!% !'!>!!! ? ;

> *

(57)

F= !G! (8 < 411 2

" !G! !" !"2 2 (8

F=1 D# 2 (8 " 2(

! "( XW(8 "1*"

! 1 9 " (8 2 "

F=1 " ! ( " 9 "

+!2 1

y z

Position d'équilibre de l'objet en lévitation

Nouvelle position de l'objet

P F p

Force qui tend à ramener

l'objet au centre du flux

41U

+!2 " ! 2

! < 41031 D , 9 - "" "

" 1 " 9 ""! " 2( (

" 9 - 1 (

! " !G! 1 D <

"" F= ! !

" < 1 (8 2 ""( F=

1 2 ! F=

1 (8 ( ! 1

"" !! "" ! (

! ! ! 1

Flux d'air laminaire Objet en

lévitation

Structure formée

d'orifices

Orifice

(58)

'

+!2 " " !# ! < 411

! !8 2 " (8

!! 1 ! " 2

! F=1 ( Y (8 ,

1

1 "!# ! 8

2 " " !" = 2 !G! !

2 ( ! T "X " 1*

! +!2 "X "

+#! 2 1

! < 4103 2 " +,

!2 " " 1 ! "<

"

!!! !"+ " " + 1 !

= OO 806 2 ! +#!

+ = ( = ! !!2 1 +

! ! ! ! " 2 "" 1 2

! !( ; " ! 1

< 4100 " + 2 ! ! 1

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(59)

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(60)

=

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z

d z

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(61)

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(62)

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1

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(63)

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N S

N

S Force gravitationnelle Force magnétique

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,

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(64)

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< 2 ! " !2

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( !2

(65)

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puissance

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(66)

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! !" ! 1$ 2 , #! Z2

! 2 !"( 2( ( " " !,

2 !"!2 ? ! #!

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2 #! Z ""2 "1

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N S

Barreau diamagnétique

Aimant

N S

Barreau diamagnétique

410:U "3 "

A; * & !. "!!.

(67)

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=( !" ! !2 " 1 !" ! " G !

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" ! = !2 !"!

1A" "

! ! !2 1

" "" !1*" "

! !!2 9 !G! "1 A(

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E ( !2 1

Aimant

dV

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B B m

S

N

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* !"2 ( !2 !" ;

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2 ! ! ,

% " !

< 4101

! "" !"!2 ""2 !

! 1 ! " !

(68)

$= !2

* ,:

35

,10

33

,16

313@

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)" ,0 3

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!= "( !2 8 ,

1

"" ,0 " "!# !2

1 ( 410

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2 1 2 ! !2 " "

"( !2

,01 != !2 ! ,

" ! 2 9 !2 1

!2 " 1 !!

! ( !2 " !"+

" "!2 1 +" < (

!=!2 !" !( 1 9

!2 !" !"!2

" 1D 8( "

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! " 1

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!2 ( T !" ! " ( !

" ! !"!2 1 & = < (

Imagem

Table de  micropositionnement
Table de micropositionnement Cantilever

Referências

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