ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect
Acta
Tropica
j ourna l h o m e pa g e :w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / a c t a t r o p i c a
Chagas
cardiomyopathy:
The
potential
effect
of
benznidazole
treatment
on
diastolic
dysfunction
and
cardiac
damage
in
dogs
chronically
infected
with
Trypanosoma
cruzi
Fabiane
M.
Santos
a,b,
Ana
L.
Mazzeti
a,
Sérgio
Caldas
d,
Karolina
R.
Gonc¸
alves
a,
Wanderson
G.
Lima
c,
Rosália
M.
Torres
e,
Maria
Terezinha
Bahia
a,c,∗aLaboratóriodeDoenc¸asParasitárias,EscoladeMedicina,UniversidadeFederaldeOuroPreto,MorrodoCruzeiro,CEP35400-000,OuroPreto,Minas
Gerais,Brazil
bDepartamentodeFarmáciaeNutric¸ão,UniversidadeFederaldoEspíritoSanto,AltoUniversitário,CEP29500-000,Alegre,EspíritoSanto,Brazil cDepartamentodeCiênciasBiológicas,InstitutodeCiênciasExataseBiológicas,UniversidadeFederaldeOuroPreto,MorrodoCruzeiro,CEP35400-000,
OuroPreto,MinasGerais,Brazil
dFundac¸ãoEzequielDias,RuaCondePereiraCarneiro,80,Gameleira,BeloHorizonte,MinasGerais,Brazil
eFaculdadedeMedicina,UniversidadeFederaldeMinasGerais,AvenidaAlfredoBalena,190,SantaEfigênia,CEP30130-100,BeloHorizonte,MinasGerais,
Brazil
a
r
t
i
c
l
e
i
n
f
o
Articlehistory:
Received25November2015 Receivedinrevisedform24April2016 Accepted15May2016
Availableonline20May2016
Keywords: Trypanosomacruzi Benznidazole
KinetoplastDNAfollow-up Diastolicdysfunction
a
b
s
t
r
a
c
t
CardiacinvolvementrepresentsthemaincauseofmortalityamongpatientswithChagasdisease,andthe relevanceoftrypanocidaltreatmenttoimprovingdiastolicdysfunctionisstilldoubtful.Inthepresent study,weusedacaninemodelinfectedwiththebenznidazole-sensitiveBerenice-78Trypanosomacruzi straintoverifytheefficacyofanetiologictreatmentinreducingtheparasiteloadandamelioratingcardiac muscletissuedamageandleftventriculardiastolicdysfunctioninthechronicphaseoftheinfection.The effectofthetreatmentonreducingtheparasiteloadwasmonitoredbybloodPCRandbloodculture assays,andtheeffectofthetreatmentontheoutcomeofhearttissuedamageandondiastolicfunctionwas evaluatedbyhistopathologyandechoDopplercardiogram.Thebenefitofthebenznidazole-treatment inreducingtheparasiteburdenwasdemonstratedbyamarkeddecreaseinpositivebloodcultureand PCRassayresultsuntil30dayspost-treatment.Atthistime,thePCRandbloodcultureassaysyielded negativeresultsfor82%ofthetreatedanimals,comparedwithonly36%oftheuntreateddogs.However, aprogressiveincreaseintheparasiteloadcouldbedetectedintheperipheralbloodforoneyear post-treatment,asevidencedbyaprogressiveincreaseinpositiveresultsforboththePCRandtheblood cultureassaysatfollow-up.Theparasiteloadreductioninducedbytreatmentwascompatiblewiththe lowerdegreeoftissuedamageamonganimalseuthanizedinthefirstmonthaftertreatmentandwith theincreasedcardiacdamageafterthisperiod,reachinglevelssimilartothoseinuntreatedanimalsat theone-yearfollow-up.Thetwoinfectedgroupsalsopresentedsimilar,significantlysmallervaluesfor earlytissueseptalvelocity(E’SIV)thanthenon-infecteddogsdidatthislatertime.Moreover,inthe treatedanimals,anincreaseintheE/E’septaltissuefillingpressureratiowasobservedwhencompared withbasalvaluesaswellaswithvaluesinnon-infecteddogs.Thesefindingsstronglysuggestthatthe temporaryreductionintheparasiteloadthatwasinducedbybenznidazoletreatmentwasnotableto preventmyocardiallesionsanddiastolicdysfunctionforlongaftertreatment.
©2016ElsevierB.V.Allrightsreserved.
1. Introduction
Chagasdiseaseisavector-borneparasiticinfectioncausedby
thekinetoplastidprotozoanTrypanosomacruziandisanimportant
∗ Correspondingauthorat:LaboratóriodeDoenc¸asParasitárias,sala203,Escola deMedicina,UniversidadeFederaldeOuroPreto,OuroPreto,MG,35400-000,Brazil. E-mailaddresses:mtbahia@nupeb.ufop.br,fabiane.santos@ufes.br(M.T.Bahia).
causeofend-stagecardiomyopathyandlossofdisability-adjusted
life years (DALYs)among young,economically active adults in
endemiccountries(Coura,2007;Martins-Meloetal.,2012).An
esti-mated14,000peoplediefromChagasdiseaseeachyear,mainly
duetoa chroniccardiacconditionthatmaybeassociated with
otherchronicdiseases,furtherincreasingmortality(Schmunisand
Yadon,2010;Guarientoetal.,2011).
Therole ofparasite persistence in thepathogenesis of
Cha-gasheart diseasehasbeendemonstrated bythe presenceof T.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2016.05.007
cruziintheheart,alongwithalow-gradebutrelentless
inflamma-toryprocessandmyocardialautoimmuneinjury(Gutierrezetal.,
2009;Marin-Netoetal.,2009;Caldasetal.,2013).However,the
immunopathologicalmechanismsinvolvedinthepathogenesisof
chagasiccardiomyopathyandtheeffectoftrypanocidaltherapyon
theclinicalcourseofpatientswithchronicChagasheartdisease
havenotbeencompletelyelucidated.
Themyocardialabnormalities observedin thechronicphase
oftheT.cruziinfectionareextremelyvariable,rangingfrommild
forms,suchasdigitiformapicalaneurysmsandabnormalitiesofthe
leftventriculardiastolicfunctiononly,tosignificantcardiac
cham-berdilatationcoupledwithseveresystolicdysfunction(Iannietal.,
2001;Miglioreetal.,2004).Echocardiographyisawell-established
testinclinicalpracticethatprovidesparametersbywhich
chaga-sicpatientscanbeanalyzedandstratified(Rassietal.,2014).Early
diagnosisofdiastolicdysfunctionisagoodtoolforthe
manage-mentofpatientswithChagascardiomyopathyandcanimprove
prognosis(Cianciullietal.,2006;Garcia-Alvarezetal.,2010).
Anumber of clinicaltrialshave demonstrated thebeneficial
effectofetiologictreatmentwithbenznidazoleintheacuteand
recent chronic phases of Chagas disease(Andradeet al., 1996;
Andradeetal.,2004;SosaEstanietal.,1998).However,no
defini-tiveconsensushasbeenreachedconcerningwhetherbenznidazole
treatment significantly reduces the parasite burden or
symp-tomsintheestablishedchronicphaseofthedisease(Marin-Neto
etal.,2009).TherecentlypublishedresultsoftheBENEFIT
clin-ical trialshowed that benznidazole treatment of patients with
establishedChagascardiomyopathywasabletoreduce(although
only transiently) blood parasite levelsbut didnot significantly
reducecardiacclinicaldeteriorationthrough5yearsoffollow-up
(Morilloetal.,2015).Pre-clinicalstudieshavedemonstratedthe
beneficial effectof etiologictreatmentonreducing tissue
dam-age(Garcia etal., 2005; Bahiaet al.,2012; Caldas etal., 2014)
andonelectrocardiographicalterations(Caldasetal.,2013).
Oth-ershavedemonstratedthatbenznidazoletreatmentwasableto
induceamildimprovementinsystolicdysfunctionindogs
chron-ically infected with T. cruzi (Santos et al., 2012). However,the
authorsshowedthatthisimprovementinsystolicheartfunction
inbenznidazole-treateddogswasnotaccompaniedbyprevention
ofgrowthofthecardiacchambers,includingtheleftatrialvolume,
aparameterthat mayalsobeevaluatedtoassessleft
ventricu-lardiastoliccardiacfunction.Consideringtheseantecedents,the
presentinvestigationwasundertakentobetterelucidatewhether
trypanocidaltherapy withbenznidazolein thechronicphase of
Chagasdiseasewouldbeeffectiveinpreventingorreducingthe
leftventricular diastolicdysfunctionand tissue damageas well
asinreducingtheparasiteburdenimmediatelyandforoneyear
post-treatment.
2. Methods
2.1. Parasite
TheBerenice-78T.cruzistrain(T.cruziII),isolatedby
xenodiag-nosisin1978(LanaandChiari,1986)fromthefirstreportedhuman
caseofChagasdisease,wasusedinthisstudy
2.2. Experimentalanimals
Thirty4-month-oldmongreldogsfromtheKenneloftheOuro
PretoFederalUniversity(UFOP),MinasGeraisState,Brazil,were
usedinthisstudy.Theanimalswerefedwithcommercialchow
andwateradlibitum.Beforethestudy,theanimalsweredewormed
andvaccinatedagainstseveralinfectiousdiseases.Allprocedures
andexperimentalprotocolswereconductedinaccordancewiththe
guidelinesoftheCOBEA(BrazilianCollegeofAnimal
Experimenta-tion)andwiththeapprovaloftheEthicsCommitteeforAnimal
ExperimentationofUFOP(Protocolnumber2008/08).Theinfected
animalswereinoculatedintraperitoneallywith4000blood
trypo-mastigotesperkgofbodyweightandthenweredividedintotwo
experimentalgroups:(i)11dogsthatweretreatedwith
benznida-zoleat7.0mg/kgbid(Q12)for60daysand(ii)11dogsthatwere
maintainedasuntreated controls.Anadditional8animalswere
maintainedasanon-infected/healthycontrolgroup.
2.3. Drugandtreatmentscheme
The drug benznidazole (Bz;
N-benzyl-2-nitro-1-imidazolacetamide) was synthesized at LAFEPE, Pernambuco,
Brazil.ThetreatmentschemewaspreviouslydescribedbyGuedes
et al. (2002). In all chronic-stage therapeutic schemes, oral
treatmentwasinitiated120dayspost-infection.
2.4. Assessmentofparasiteclearance
TheparasiteloadwasmonitoredbybloodPCRandbloodculture
assaysperformedbeforetreatmentandinthe1st,6thand12th
monthspost-treatment.Additionally,quantitativereal-timePCR
(qPCR)wasperformedonhearttissuesamplesfromtheanimals
euthanizedinthe1stand12thmonthspost-treatment.
2.4.1. BloodPCR
For the PCR assays of the blood, 10mL of blood was
col-lectedfromeachanimalduringfollow-upevaluationsinthe4th
month of infection (before treatment) and at the 1st, 6th and
12thmonthspost-treatment.Thebloodsamplesweremixedwith
an equal volume ofa 6Mguanidine hydrochloride-0.2MEDTA
solution and were stored for two weeks at room temperature,
followed by boilingfor 15min beforeDNA wasextracted from
200Laliquotstakenfromeachsample(Guedesetal.,2002).PCR
amplificationwasperformedinatotalvolumeof20L
contain-ing0.1%TritonX-100;10mMTris-HCl(pH9.0);75mMKCl;5mM
MgCl2;0.2mM(each)dATP,dTTP,dGTPanddCTP(Sigma
Chem-icalCo.);1LofTaqDNApolymerase(Invitrogen,USA);20pmol
ofS35(5-AAATAATGTACGGG(T/A)GAGATGCATGA-3)andS36(5
-GGGTTCGATTGGGGTTGGTGT-3)primers;and2LofDNAforeach
sample (Ávilaet al.,1991).Thereactionmixturewassubjected
to35cyclesofamplificationinanautomaticthermocycler
(Bio-cycler).Thetemperatureprofilewasasfollows:denaturationat
95◦Cfor1min(withalongerinitialtimeof5minat95◦C),65◦C
for1minforprimerannealingand72◦Cfor1minforextension,
withafinalincubationat72◦Cfor10mintoextendtheannealed
primers.ThePCRproductswerevisualizedby6%polyacrylamide
gelelectrophoresis,followedbysilverstaining.AllDNAextraction
stepsandreactionmixturesusedforPCRweremonitoredand
com-paredwithpositiveandnegativecontrols.ThePCRanalysiswas
considerednegativeafterthreefailedDNAextractionsforagiven
sample.
2.4.2. Bloodculture
Parasite detection was performed by culturing 10mL blood
samples collectedin parallel with theblood usedfor theDNA
extractionandPCRamplification.Bloodcultureassayswere
per-formedfor treated and control/untreateddogs,as describedby
Guedesetal.(2002).Theculturesweremaintainedat28◦C,
homog-enized weekly, and examined monthly for up to 120days for
parasitedetection.
2.4.3. Quantitativereal-timePCR
DNAextractionfromtheleftatriumwasperformedat1and12
Kit(Promega)withcertainmodifications(Caldasetal.,2012).Using
thepGEM-TEasyVectorSystem(Promega,Madison,WI,USA),a
plasmidwasconstructedbycloningthe182bpampliconofT.cruzi
satelliteDNA.Theampliconwasgeneratedusingtheprimers
TCZ-F5-GCTCTTGCCCACAMGGGTGC-3,whereM=AorC,andTCZ-R
5-CCAAGCAGCGGATAGTTCAGG-3,asdescribedbyCummingsand
Tarleton(2003).Therecombinantplasmidwaslinearizedby
diges-tionwithNdeI,andthetargetsequencewaspurifiedandquantified
usingaQubit®2.0Fluorometer(LifeTechnologies).TheDNAcopy
numberwascalculated,and100Lof1×1012clonedcopiesofT.
cruziDNAwasmixedwith100LofDNA(5-foldconcentrated)
fromanon-infecteddog.Thecaninehousekeeping-actingene
wasusedastheendogenouscontrolforqPCRnormalization.
Stan-dardcurvesweregeneratedfromfiveserialdilutionsofthemixed
DNAinwater(1:10),rangingfrom5×109to5×105copies/Lfor
T.cruziand1×107to1×103arbitraryunits/Lfor-actin.
AssaysofqPCRwereperformedusingSYBRGreenMasterMix
(AppliedBiosystems)accordingtothemanufacturer’sinstructions
and thespecificprimers TCZsat-F5
-YCTCTGACTCCCACCATTCA-3, where Y=C+T, and TCZsat-R 5-GCACTCGGCTGATCGTTT-3
(InvitrogenTM),designedbyusforT.cruziDNA(89bp)
amplifica-tion.Thecanine-actinendogenouscontrol(54bp)wasamplified
usingthesenseprimer5-CCACTTTCCTGTCTTACCCAA-3 andthe
antisenseprimer 5-AATTAACCACCCACGGTGTT-3 (Guedesetal.,
2010)(InvitrogenTM).DNAsampleswere10-folddilutedinwater
beforeuse.Cyclesofamplificationwerecarriedoutina7500Fast
Real-TimePCRSystem(AppliedBiosystems).Thecyclesconsisted
ofaninitialdenaturationfor10minat95◦C,followedby40cycles
of95◦Cfor15sand62◦Cfor1min,withfluorescenceacquisition.
Amplificationwasimmediatelyfollowedbyameltingcurve
pro-gramwithaninitialdenaturationat95◦Cfor15s,coolingto60◦C
for1minandthenastepwisetemperatureincreaseof0.3◦C/sfrom
60to95◦C.Each96-wellreactionplatecontainedastandardfor
thecurvesandtwonegativecontrols,consistingofreactionswith
T.cruziand -actin-specificprimerswithoutDNAandreactions
withDNAfromanon-infecteddog.EachDNAsamplewas
quan-tifiedinduplicate fortheT.cruziand-actintargets.Themean
valuesforT.cruziDNAwerenormalizedbythedataobtainedfor
-actin,asfollows:normalizedvalue=(meanT.cruziDNA/mean
-actinDNA)×4×106(expectedmeanvaluefor-actin).
2.5. Histopathologyandmorphometricanalysis
Afragmentofapproximately1.0cm×1.0cm×0.2cmfromthe
middleoftherightatrialwallwascollectedforhistopathological
analysisat1and12 monthspost-treatmentaftereuthanasia of
thedogs.Thetissuefragmentswerefixedina10%buffered
for-malinsolution,dehydrated,clearedandembeddedinparaffin.The
blockswerecutinto4m-thicksectionsandstainedwith
hema-toxylinandeosin(H&E)forassessmentoftheinflammationorwith
Masson’strichromeforquantitativeevaluationoffibrosis.Twenty
fieldsfromeachH&EorMasson’strichrome-stainedsectionwere
randomlychosenat a 40× magnification,giving a total areaof
1.49×106m2 of analyzedmyocardium.Imageswereobtained
usingaLeicaDM5000microcameraand theLeicaApplications
SuitesoftwarebuiltintotheLeicaQ-WinplusVSimageanalyzer.
Theinflammatoryprocesswasevaluatedbasedonthenumberof
cellnucleiquantifiedinthemyocardialmusclefromnon-infected
andinfectedanimals.Theareaoffibrosiswasquantifiedusingthe
imagesegmentationfunction.Allpixelswithbluehuesin
Mas-son’strichrome-stainedsectionswereselectedtobuildabinary
image,and thetotal areaoccupiedbyconnectivetissue in
non-infectedandT. cruzi-infecteddogswassubsequently calculated.
Theinfectedanimalswereconsideredtohavearelevant
inflam-matoryprocessoranareaoffibrosiswhenthecellnucleusnumber
orthefibrosisareaindicatedbybluepixelswasgreaterthanthe
Fig.1.Influenceofbenznidazoletreatmentontheparasiteload.Percentageof pos-itivebloodcultureandbloodPCRassaysobtainedbeforetreatmentaswellasat1,6 and12monthspost-treatmentwith7mg/kgbenznidazoletwicedailyfor60daysin dogsinfectedwiththeBerenice-78Trypanosomacruzistrain.IF:untreatedinfected animals.IF-T:benznidazole-treatedinfectedanimals.
medianvalueplusonestandarddeviation(SD)quantifiedinthe
non-infectedgroup.
2.6. Echocardiography
All animals were submitted to Doppler echocardiographic
exams before infection and in the 1st and 12th months
post-treatment(i.e.,6and18monthspost-infection).Theanimalswere
injectedintraperitoneallywiththeanestheticthiopentalsodium
(0.03g/mL0.8%salinesolution)andplacedonaninsulated
elec-tric surface,where theanesthetizeddogswere positionedwith
theirlimbsperpendicularlyorientatedtothebody(Santosetal.,
2012).Theleftventriculardiastolicfunctionwasmeasuredbased
onthemitralinflowpattern,pulmonaryvenousflowandpulsed
Doppler tissue imaging. The parameters were monitoredusing
a moving Cypress echocardiographic instrument and are well
described inearlydiastolic dysfunctioninChagas heartdisease
(Garcia-Alvarezetal.,2010).M-mode,two-dimensionalandpulsed
Dopplerechocardiographicstudieswereperformedoneach
ani-malaccordingtothemethoddescribedbytheAmericanSocietyof
Echocardiography(Schilleretal.,1989;Kerenetal.,1985).
2.7. Statisticalanalysis
Themeansofthehistologicalinflammatoryprocess
quantifica-tionandechocardiographicparameterswereanalyzedviaanalysis
ofvariance,followedbyTukey’smultiplecomparisontests.Inall
cases, differences wereconsidered as significantwhen p<0.05.
ThecorrelationsoftissueDopplerdiastolicdysfunction
parame-terswiththeintensityofthefibrosisandinflammationintheright
atriumwereverifiedbythePearsonlinearcorrelationtest.
Statisti-calcalculationswereperformedusingGraph-PadPrismsoftware.
3. Results
3.1. Bloodparasiteclearance
Toevaluatetheefficacyofbenznidazoleinclearingthe
para-sitism,detectionofT.cruziinthebloodsampleswasperformedby
PCRandbloodculturebeforetreatmentandinthe1st,6thand12th
monthspost-treatment.Thedogsweretreatedfor60consecutive
daysintheearlychronicphase(4thto6thmonthsafterinfection).
Beforethe4thmonthofinfection,whenthetreatmentbegan,the
summationsofthepositiveresultsverifiedbyPCRandblood
cul-tureweresimilarandgreaterthan70%intheinfectedgroups(8of
the11treatedanimalsand9ofthe11untreatedanimals)(Fig.1).
Fig.2.EffectoftreatmentonthedevelopmentofcardiacdamageinexperimentalChagasdisease.Quantitativeanalysisoftheparasiteload(A),rightatrialinflammation (B)andfibroticarea(C)observedinsamplesoftheleftatriafrommongreldogsinfectedwith4×103bloodtrypomastigotesoftheBerenice-78Trypanosomacruzistrainper
kgofbodyweight.Thedogswereeuthanizedatthe1stand12thmonthspost-treatment(i.e.,6thand18thmonthspost-infection).Thegraphrepresentsthemean±SDof resultsobtainedfromanimalsincludedinthecontrolnon-infected(NI),untreatedinfected(IF)andtreatedinfected(IF-T)groups(magnification40x,andis10m).(D,F,H, J,LandN)Hematoxylinandeosinstainingforinflammationassessment;(E,G,I,K,MandO)Masson’strichromestainingforfibrosisassessment;(D,E,JandK)myocardial sectionsfromanon-infecteddog;(F,G,LandM)sectionsfromanuntreatedinfecteddog;(H,I,N,O)sectionsfromatreatedinfecteddog.
thisevaluationhadbeenconfirmedashavingT.cruziinfectionat
theacutestageofthediseasebyaperipheralbloodexam.
Immediatelyafterthetrypanocidalchemotherapy,82%(9of11)
oftheanimalsoriginallyinfectedwithT.cruzihadnegativeresults
intheblood PCRassay.Thenegativeresultswereverifiedinall
bloodculturetests,confirmingtheimmediatereductionofthe
par-asiteloadinducedbybenznidazoletreatment.Incontrast,atthis
time,theparasiteoritskinetoplastDNA(kDNA)couldbedetected
in82%(9of11)oftheanimalsthatwereinfectedanduntreated
Fig.3.Influenceofbenznidazoletreatmentonventriculardiastolicfunction:mitralinflow.Evaluationofmitralinflowinmongreldogs,performedbeforeinfectionwith Trypanosomacruzi(whitecircles)aswellas1and12monthspost-treatmentwithbenznidazole(blackcircles).Theresults(mean±SD)representthoseobtainedfromanimals fromthecontrolnon-infected,untreatedinfectedandbenznidazole-treatedinfectedgroups.*Statisticalsignificance(p<0.05,asassessedusingTukey’stest).
cardiactissuethaninperipheralblood,butatsignificantlylower
levelsin thetissue samplesobtainedfrom thetreated animals
relativetothelevelsobservedintheuntreatedinfectedanimals.
Consideringtheresultsofthereal-timePCR,themeanparasitism
detected30daysaftertreatmentwas45.83×103copiesofT.cruzi
DNA/30mgofcardiactissueintreateddogsand58,032.51×103
copiesofT.cruziDNAinthosewithouttreatment(Fig.2A).
Thefollow-upevaluationatoneyearpost-treatmentrevealed
anincreaseinbloodparasitismbecausetheparasiteoritskDNA
couldbedetectedin40%(2of5)ofthebloodsamplescollectedin
the6thmonthaftertreatmentandin60%(3of5)ofthosecollected
inthe12thmonthpost-treatment.Thesameresultwasdetectedin
80%(4of5)andin100%(5of5)ofthebloodsamplescollectedfrom
theuntreatedanimalsinthe6thand12thmonthspost-treatment,
respectively(Fig.1).T.cruziDNAcouldbedetectedatthesame
levelsinallsamplesofcardiacmuscletissuefromtheanimalsin
bothinfectedgroups,namely,treatedornottreated.Atthistime,
couldbedetected202.52×103copiesofT.cruziDNA/30mgof
car-diactissueintreateddogsand88.86×103copiesofT.cruziDNAin
thosewithouttreatment(Fig.2A).
3.2. Myocardialinflammatoryprocess
Toassesstheeffectivenessofbenznidazoletreatmentin
ame-lioratingheart muscletissuedamage, a quantitativeanalysisof
inflammation and fibrosis was performed in the 1st and 12th
monthspost-treatment.Nostatisticallysignificantvariation was
observed in the rightatrial inflammatory process betweenthe
infected groups at 1 month post-treatment. However, in the
benznidazole-treatedanimals,approximately20%fewer
mononu-clear inflammatory cells and 64% less intrafascicular collagen
Table1
EvaluationofleftventriclediastolicfunctionbymitralinflowanalysiswithDopplerechocardiographyperformedonmongreldogsat6and18monthspost-infectionwith Trypanosomacruzi,respectivelyat1and12monthspost-treatmentwithbenznidazole,aswellasonnoninfectedanimals.
Variable Experimentalgroups
1monthpost-treatment 12monthspost-treatment
NI IF-NT IF-T NI IF-NT IF-T
E(cm/s) 0.70±0.1 0.93±0.1a,c 0.71±0.05b 0.78±0.25 0.66±0.1 0.84±0.1
A(cm/s) 0.43±0.1 0.51±0.06 0.46±0.11 0.54±0.14 0.48±0.10 0.53±0.08 E/Aratio 1.64±0.14 1.85±0.30 1.63±0.39 1.45±0.15 1.44±0.47 1.62±0.30 DT(ms) 126.0±35.33 106.0±39.56 104.0±28.06 135.0±15.87 139.2±34.83 110.4±16.82 NI:noninfectedcontrolgroup;IF-NT:infectednontreatedgroup;IF-T:infectedbenznidazole-treatedgroup.
aIndicatessignificantdifferencerelativetothenoninfectedcontrolgroupinthecorrespondingtime. bIndicatessignificantdifferencerelativetotheinfectednontreatedgroup.
c Indicatessignificantdifferencerelativetotheinfectedbenznidazole-treatedgroup.
Table2
EvaluationofleftventriclediastolicfunctionbypulmonaryvenousflowanalysiswithDopplerechocardiographyperformedonmongreldogsat6and18monthspost-infection withTrypanosomacruzi,respectivelyat1and12monthspost-treatmentwithbenznidazole,aswellasonnoninfectedanimals.
Variable Experimentalgroups
1monthpost-treatment 12monthspost-treatment
NI IF-NT IF-T NI IF-NT IF-T
S(cm/s) 0.49±0.1 0.71±0.22 0.64±0.16 0.53±0.07 0.47±0.06 0.46±0.13
D(cm/s) 0.4±0.14 0.43±0.11 0.51±0.21 0.42±0.08 0.3±0.03 0.35±0.09
S/Dratio 1.26±0.2 1.65±0.20 1.33±0.27 1.3±0.27 1.59±0.21 1.37±0.46
Arvelocity(cm/s) 0.26±0.01 0.29±0.06 0.31±0.04 0.31±0.00 0.29±0.07 0.31±0.05
Arduration(ms) 66.0±0.00 68.0±3.46 62.67±15.32 67.5±9.0 74.0±8.25 77.6±6.54
NI:noninfectedcontrolgroup;IF-NT:infectednontreatedgroup;IF-T:infectedbenznidazole-treatedgroup.
Table3
EvaluationofleftventriclediastolicfunctionbytissueDoppleratbasalsegmentsperformedwithDopplerechocardiographyonmongreldogsat6and18monthspost-infection withTrypanosomacruzi,respectivelyat1and12monthspost-treatmentwithbenznidazole,aswellasonnoninfectedanimals.
Variable Experimentalgroups
1monthpost-treatment 12monthspost-treatment
NI IF-NT IF-T NI IF-NT IF-T
E’SIV(cm/s) 0.20±0.06 0.19±0.06 0.18±0.04 0.23±0.11 0.08±0.03a 0.09±0.04a
A’SIV(cm/s) 0.10±0.02 0.13±0.06 0.10±0.03 0.16±0.14 0.07±0.02 0.10±0.03 E’/A’SIVratio 2.09±0.53 1.64±0.67 2.07±0.74 1.7±0.51 1.43±1.06 0.94±0.61 E/E’SIVratio 3.85±1.61 5.73±3.01 4.24±1.26 4.15±1.94 8.76±2.70 11.26±4.91a
E’LAT(cm/s) 0.25±0.05 0.33±0.06c 0.22±0.06b 0.25±0.05 0.16±0.03* 0.18±0.06
A’LAT(cm/s) 0.14±0.03 0.16±0.03c 0.10±0.03b 0.14±0.05 0.07±0.01 0.11±0.04
E’/A’LATratio 1.90±0.36 2.08±0.57 2.31±0.52 1.95±0.53 2.33±0.75 1.71±0.51 E/E’LATratio 2.84±0.76 2.92±0.56 3.54±1.0 3.19±0.73 4.22±1.12 4.86±1.03 NI:noninfectedcontrolgroup;IF-NT:infectednontreatedgroup;IF-T:infectedbenznidazole-treatedgroup.
aIndicatessignificantdifferenceinrelationtothenoninfectedcontrolgroupinthecorrespondingtime. bIndicatesasignificantdifferencerelativetotheinfectednontreatedgroup.
c Indicatesasignificantdifferencerelativetotheinfectedbenznidazole-treatedgroup.
animals had significantly higher fibrosis levels than the
non-infecteddogsdid(Fig.2BandC).Inalaterevaluation,at12months
post-treatment,similarlevelsofrightatriallesionsweredetected
intreatedanduntreatedinfectedanimals,andthelevelsinboth
groupsweresignificantlyhigherthanthosepresentinnon-infected
dogs(Fig.2BandC).
3.3. Leftventriculardiastolicdysfunction
Theevaluationoftheleftventriculardiastolicfunctionwas
car-riedout by assessing the mitral inflowand pulmonary venous
flowandbytissueDopplerimaging,whichwereaccomplishedby
performingDopplerechocardiographicexamsbeforetheinfection
andatthe1stand12thmonthspost-treatment.Beforeinfection,
allparameters evaluated weresimilaramong the non-infected,
untreatedinfectedandtreatedinfectedanimals(Figs.3–5).
Themitralinflowanalysis,whichinvolvementmeasurementof
theearlydiastolicmitralflowvelocity(E),latediastolicmitralflow
velocity(A),E/AratioanddecelerationtimeoftheEwave(DT),
showedthattheonlydifferencesamongthegroupsoccurredatthe
1stmonthpost-treatment,withgreatermedianvaluesofEinthe
untreatedinfectedanimals(0.93cm/s)comparedwiththetreated
infected(0.71cm/s)andnon-infected(0.70cm/s)animals(p<0.05).
Therewasnovariationintheparametersofthemitralinflow
anal-ysisamongthegroupsatthe12thmonthpost-treatment,andthe
valuesdidnotvarywithrespecttothebaselinedataateither1or
12monthspost-treatment(Table1andFig.3).
Theevaluationofpulmonaryvenousflowatthe1stand12th
monthspost-treatmentrevealedsimilarvaluesamongthegroups
forallofthefollowingparameters:peakSwaveinflowpulmonary
velocityduringventricularsystole(S),peakDwave inflow
pul-monaryvelocityduringtheearlyphaseofventriculardiastole(D),
thecorrespondingS/Dratio,peakretrogradepulmonaryvein
veloc-ityoratrialreversevelocity(Arvelocity)anddurationofretrograde
pulmonaryveinoratrialreverseduration(Arduration)(Table2).
Fig.4.Influenceofbenznidazoletreatmentonleftventriculardiastolicfunction:tissueDopplerattheinterventricularseptum.Analysisofleftventriculardiastolicfunction bytissueDopplerattheinterventricularseptum(SIV),performedonmongreldogsbeforeinfectionwithTrypanosomacruzi(whitecircles)aswellas1and12months post-treatmentwithbenznidazole(blackcircles).Theresults(mean±SD)representthoseobtainedfromanimalsfromthecontrolnon-infected,untreatedinfectedand benznidazole-treatedinfectedgroups.*Statisticalsignificance(p<0.05,asassessedusingTukey’stest).
monthspost-treatmentwasnotperformedduetotheabsenceof
differencesamongthegroups.
The study of tissue Doppler at the basal segments showed
averagevaluesforthepeakearly(E’)andlate(A’)diastolic
myocar-dialvelocitiesobtainedattheseptal(SIV)andlateral(LAT)wall
positions,theratiosof E’/A’ SIVandE’/A’ LAT, and theE/E’SIV
and LAT ratiosto estimate theleft ventricular filling pressure.
Earlyand latetissuelateralvelocities(E’LATandA’LAT)atthe
1stmonthpost-infectionweresimilarbetweennon-infectedand
infected animals, although the treated infected and untreated
infectedgroups showedsimilardifferences asfortheirbaseline
data(p>0.05).Afterward,theevaluationatthe12thmonth
post-treatmentrevealedaworsereductionintheE’SIV(p<0.05)andE’
LAT(p<0.01)inboththetreatedandtheuntreatedinfected
ani-malscomparedwiththeirbaselinedata.Thenon-infectedanimals
showedsimilarvaluesfortheseparameterscomparedwiththeir
baselinedataandstillexhibitedahigherE’SIVthaneitherofthe
infectedgroupsdid(p<0.05)andahigherE’LATthantheuntreated
infectedgroupdid(p<0.05).Theestimateoftheleftventricular
fillingpressurebasedontheE/E’septalratio(E/E’SIV)showedan
increaseinthetreatedinfectedanimalscomparedwiththeir
base-linedata(p<0.05),highervaluesthanobservedinthenon-infected
dogs(p<0.05),anddatathatwereintermediaterelativetothedata
fortheuntreatedinfectedgroupatthe12thmonthpost-treatment
(Table3,Figs.4and5).
Tostudytheinfluenceofthetissueinflammatoryprocessonthe
developmentofleftventriculardiastolicdysfunction,
intrafascicu-larcollagendepositionandthelevelsofmononuclearinflammatory
cellswereassessedbasedonthetissueDopplerparametersusing
the Pearson linear correlation test. Fibrosis and mononuclear
inflammatorycellswerecorrelatedwiththeE’SIVvelocity,E’/A’
SIVratioandE/E’SIVratio(p<0.01).TheE/E’LATratiowasstill
cor-relatedwiththeinflammatorycells(p<0.01).ThevaluesoftheE/E’
Fig.5.Influenceofbenznidazole-treatmentonleftventriculardiastolicfunction:tissueDoppleratthelateralwallposition.Analysisofleftventriculardiastolicfunction bytissueDoppleratthelateralwallposition(LAT),performedonmongreldogsbeforeinfectionwithTrypanosomacruzi(whitecircles)aswellasat1and12months post-treatmentwithbenznidazole(blackcircles).Theresults(mean±SD)representthoseobtainedfromanimalsfromthecontrolnon-infected,untreatedinfectedand benznidazole-treatedinfectedgroups.*Statisticalsignificance(p<0.05,asassessedusingTukey’stest).
thoseoftheE’SIVandE’/A’SIVwereproportionallylowerasthe
levelsoftissueinflammationincreased(Fig.6).
4. Discussion
Benznidazoletreatmenthasrecentlybeenspecifically
recom-mended for all patients with Chagas disease, even though the
experimentalandclinicalevidence thatis currentlyavailableis
insufficienttosupporttheroutine useof etiologictreatmentin
chronicpatients(Viottietal.,2006;Marin-Netoetal.,2009).
We used a canine model infected with the
benznidazole-sensitiveBerenice-78straintoverifythedrug’sefficacyinreducing
the parasiteload and ameliorating cardiac muscletissue
dam-ageand left ventricular diastolic dysfunction.Here, the benefit
ofbenznidazole treatmentinreducing theparasiteburdenwas
demonstratedbythemarkeddecreaseinpositiveresultsforblood
cultureandPCRassaysuntil30dayspost-treatment.Atthattime,
thePCRandbloodcultureassayshadnegativeresultsfor82%of
thetreatedanimals,comparedwithonly36%oftheuntreateddogs.
Nevertheless,aprogressiveincreaseinpositiveresultsforboththe
PCRandthebloodcultureassayswasdetectedthroughoutthe
eval-uationperiod.Overall,ourresultsshowthat thenegativeblood
PCRorbloodcultureresultsobtainedimmediatelyafterthe
eti-ologic treatmentmaybepredictivenotof a cure,but ratherof
only a transitoryreduction in theparasite burden;this finding
suggeststhattheparasitesremain,butat levelsbelow the
lim-itsofdetectionofthemethodsused.TheqPCRdataforthetissue
samplesfrombenznidazole-treateddogsatonemonthafter
treat-mentandat12monthspost-treatmentsupportthishypothesisby
showingthepersistenceoftheparasiteinthetissuesoftreated
animals,andeventhoseinwhichtheparasitewasnotdetected
intheperipheralbloodbyPCRorbybloodculture.Theresultsof
Fig.6. Influenceofmusclecardiactissuedamageonleftventriculardiastolicdysfunction.Pearsoncorrelationamongthefibroticareas(collagen)andinflammation(cells) intherightatriumaccordingtoE’SIV,E’/A’SIV,andE/E’SIVandbetweeninflammatorycellsandE/E’LAT.
monthsaftertreatmentconfirmthepersistenceofparasitisminthe
benznidazole-treateddogs.
Our previous studies in dogs infected withthe Berenice-78
strain showedthat benznidazole treatmentin theacute phase
(20–30daysafterinfection)wasabletocure75–100%ofanimals,
reducingtissuedamageandpreventingelectrocardiographic
alter-ations(Guedesetal.,2002;Caldasetal.,2013).Theseobservations
suggestthatthetreatmentfailuredetectedinthepresentstudy
wasnotduetothegeneticresistanceoftheBerenice-78strainto
thedrug,butrathertoaphenotypiccharacteristic.This
hypothe-sisisinlinewiththeobservationsofothers,showingthatinvivo
resistancetomultiplecompoundscanvarywiththehostspecies
andbecomesmoreevidentwithanincreasinglengthofinfection
(DosSantosetal.,2008;Caldasetal.,2008;Bustamanteetal.,2013).
AccordingtoBustamanteetal.(2013),failureinetiologictreatment
couldalsoberelatedtothetissuedistributionofparasitesandthe
inaccessibilityofcertaincellsortissuestothedrug.
However,theresultsofexperimentalstudiesshouldbeanalyzed
withcaution,asitisunclearwhichexperimentalmodelisthemost
appropriatefortranslationintohumans.Anumberof
experimen-talstudieshavealreadydemonstratedtheeffectsoftherouteof
infection;thesizeoftheinocula;andtheanimal’sweight,sex,and
ageontheoutcomesofanimalinfection.AccordingtoChatelain
andKonar(2015),achronicChagasdiseasemodelwouldideally
offerIgGnegativity,negativeparasitemia,positiveserology,
sur-vival,andmeasuresofinflammationmarkersintheheartandother
organs.Alongtheselines,thedogmodelshowsprogressiontoa
chronicphasethatcloselyreflectshumandisease,soitmaybe
con-cludedthatthisisoneofthebestavailableinvivomodelsforChagas
disease(Andrade,1984;Lanaetal.,1992;Bahiaetal.,2002;Guedes
etal.,2010;Santosetal.,2012;Caldasetal.,2013).
In the present study, the parasite load reduction induced
by treatment in the early chronic phase was compatible with
thelessertissuedamageamong animalseuthanizedinthefirst
month after treatment. At this time, a higher level of fibrosis
wasdetectedin thecardiacmuscletissue amongtheuntreated
infectedanimals(2750.442±2369.27collagen/74,931.3m2)
rel-ativetothefibrosisdetectedinthetreateddogs(1017.57±368.95
collagen/74,931.3m2).However,thelargeSDsincardiac
dam-agedetectedamongtheuntreatedinfectedanimalspreventedthe
detection of significant differences between untreated infected
and treated infected animals, but only the untreated infected
animalshadfibrosislevelssignificantlyhigherthanthosein
non-infectedanimals.Consistentwiththeparasiteloadsverysimilar
levelsof fibrosiscouldbe detectedbetweenuntreated infected
(3369.48±1098.12 collagen/74,931.3m2)and treated infected
(3966.65±995.70collagen/74,931.3m2)animalsat12months
aftertreatment.Thesefindingsallowtoformulatethehypothesis
thatintheabsenceofcure,thetreatmentresponsemaybe
ben-eficialintheearlystagesaftertreatment;however,thelaterlack
ofcontroloftheparasitewouldallowtissuedamagetooccur.Our
findingsareinagreementwiththeresultsoftherecentlyconcluded
BENEFITclinical trial,in which it was foundthat benznidazole
therapyinpatientswithestablishedChagascardiomyopathy
sig-nificantly(buttransiently)reducedserumparasitelevelsthrough5
yearsoffollow-up,althoughcardiacclinicaldeteriorationwasnot
significantlyreduced(Morilloetal.,2015).Basedontheresultsof
theBENEFITstudyandthoseofthepresentwork,thehighlevels
(94%)ofbloodparasiteDNAclearanceobservedintheMolinaetal.
(2014)studymaysimplyreflectatransientreductionofthe
loadorparasitologicalcure,andassuchdonotguaranteeapositive
clinicaloutcomeinthemediumtolongterm.
Toassesswhetherthetransientreductionintheparasite
bur-denbybenznidazoletreatmentwouldaffecttheoutcomeofcardiac
diastolicfunction,theleftventriculardiastolicfunctionwas
veri-fiedbasedonthemitralflow,pulmonaryvenousflowandtissue
Doppler.Intheclinicalsetting,evaluationofdiastolicventricular
functioniscomplicatedbythecoexistenceofmorethanoneofthe
factorsthataffectdiastolicfilling,andforthisreason,anintegrated
approach involvingvarious Dopplerechocardiographic
parame-tersforevaluationandquantificationofthefillingpressuresisthe
bestwaytoassessdiastolicfunction.Achangeindiastolic
func-tionmaycontributesignificantlytotheproductionofsymptoms
invariouscardiacdiseases,eveninthepresenceofnormalsystolic
function(Doughertyetal.,1984;Sonnenblick,1988;Aguirreetal.,
1990).Ithasalsobeenshownthatdiastolicdysfunctioncanhave
anearlyonset, precedingtheoccurrenceofsystolicdysfunction
(Hirota, 1980;Brutsaert, 1983;Nishimura etal., 1989). Accord-ingtoCianciullietal.(2006),alowerE/Aratioandalengthening
ofthedecelerationtimeofearlydiastolicfilling(DT)revealedan
earlydisorderoftheleftventriculardiastolicfunctioninpatients
withChagasdisease,andtheseearlydiastolicdisorderscanalso
bedetectedina greatnumberofpatientswithotherheart
dis-eases.However, the assessment of diastolic function by mitral
Dopplersufferssignificantlimitations,asthecurvechanges
accord-ingtoage,heartrateandhemodynamicconditions,whereastissue
Dopplerislesssensitivetoloadchanges(Nishimuraetal.,1990;
AyuelaandVilchez,2004).
ThepresentstudyshowedthattissueDopplerwasthebesttool
todemonstratetheworseningintheleftventriculardiastolic
func-tionintheinfectedanimals.Theabsenceofsignificantdifferences
inthetissueDopplerparametersintheinfectedgroupsbetween
theirbaselineandsixmonthspost-infectionrevealsthatthehigher
E’LATandA’LATvelocitiespresentedbytheuntreatedinfected
animalscomparedwiththetreatedinfecteddogsat30days
post-treatment may have occurred due to an elevation of preload
(end-diastolic stress), and not tothe infection by T. cruzi.This
conceptwasalsodemonstrated,buttoagreater degree,bythe
highest Emitral velocity inthese sameanimals becausemitral
inflowparametersaremorepreloaddependentthantissueDoppler
variablesare(Oliveiraetal.,2009).Theseearlyalterationsdidnot
remainat thetime of thelater evaluation, at 12 months
post-treatment, whereas an interesting reduction of the E’ SIV and
E’ LAT velocities occurred in both infected groups, beyondthe
E/E’ratioelevationthatoccurredinthetreatedinfectedanimals.
Theselaterfindingsareinagreementwiththedefinitionof
dias-tolicdysfunction,whichistheinabilitytoacceptbloodflowatall
oraninabilitytodosowithoutacompensatoryincreaseinleft
atrialpressure (Staufferand Gaasch,1990).The reduction ofE’
(SIVandLAT)reflectsimpairedmyocardialrelaxation,whereasthe
growthoftheE/E’ratioreflectstheelevationoftheleft
ventric-ularfillingpressure(Dokainish,2007).ThelowerE’velocityand
thelengtheningoftheE/E’ratioaccordingtotheworseningof
car-diomyopathydysfunctionwereinagreementwiththeincreasein
fibrosisandtheprogressionofheartinflammationinthe
experi-mentaldogsevaluatedinthiswork,aswellaswiththestratification
ofheartdysfunctioninchagasicpatientsdemonstratedinother
work(Nascimentoetal.,2013;Garcia-Alvarezetal.,2010).
Interestingly,ourpreviousstudy(Santosetal.,2012)showed
that benznidazole treatment in early chronic Chagas disease
slightlyameliorated,butwasunabletoefficientlyprevent,
long-term left ventricular systolic cardiac dysfunction. In fact, only
untreatedinfectedanimalsexhibitedsignificantlyworsevaluesfor
classicalparametersforassessingsystolicdysfunctionrelativeto
non-infecteddogs.However,bothT.cruzi-infectedgroups(treated
ornot)experiencedasignificantdecreaseinthesecardiacsystolic
functionparametersat18monthspost-infection(12monthsafter
treatment)comparedwithbaselinevalues.Inaddition,thesame
previousworkstillrevealedthatbenznidazoletreatmentofchronic
T.cruziinfectionwasunabletopreventthelong-term
develop-mentofcardiomegaly,includinganincreaseintheleftatrialvolume
(Santosetal.,2012).Inthepresentstudy,theabsenceofsignificant
benefitsofbenznidazoletreatmentata chronicstageofT. cruzi
infectionintermsofamelioratingcardiomyopathyevolutionwas
furtherclarified,andtheresultswereinagreementwithour
previ-ousfindingsfortheleftatrialvolume,aparameterwhoseincrease
mayberelated toleftventriculardiastolic dysfunction.Despite
thelimitednumberofanimalsusedineachexperimentalgroup
(11benznidazole-treatedinfectedanimals,11untreatedinfected
animalsand 8non-infectedcontrols),thesefindings permitthe
conclusionthatthecardiacstructuralandfunctionalalterationsin
theinfectedanimalswereassociatedwiththeparasiteloadinthe
heart.
An overall analysis of ourresults indicatesthat the
tempo-rarysuppressiveactivityof treatmentwithbenznidazoleduring
thechronicstageofChagasdiseaseinBerenice-78T.cruzi
strain-infectedmongreldogswasnotabletoaffecttheoutcomeofthe
myocardial pathophysiological degenerative process. The
post-treatmentparasitereboundinthelongtermandthedevelopment
ofdiastolicdysfunctioncorrelatedwithheartlesionsshowedthat
benznidazoletreatmentintheearlychronicphasewasnot
effi-cientatpreventingtheprogressionofcardiomyopathydiseasein
dogsinfectedwiththeBerenice-78T.cruzistrain,eventhougha
slightimprovement insystolicdysfunctionhadpreviously been
shown.Basedourpresentfindingssuchtherapeuticinterventions
mustaimataprofoundandsustained,notshortterm,suppression
oftheparasiteloadofinfectedpatients.
Conflictofinterest
Theauthorsdeclarethattheyhavenoconflictofinterest.
Acknowledgments
This work receivedfinancial support from the Fundac¸ãode
AmparoaPesquisadoEstadodeMinasGerais(Fapemig);Conselho
NacionaldeDesenvolvimentoCientíficoeTecnológico(CNPq);
Uni-versidade Federalde OuroPreto andresearch fellowshipsfrom
Conselho NacionaldeDesenvolvimento CientíficoeTecnológico
(M.T.B.).
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