Almanack número14

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Almanack. Guarulhos, n.14, p.27- 51 dossiê scales of global hist ory

M ule

Drivers

in

Ninet eent h- Cent ury

Lebanon:

f rom

local

social

hist ory

t owards Global Hist ory

DOI: ht t p://dx.doi.org/10.1590/2236- 463320161403

Joane Chaker

Hist ory Depart ment of Harvard Universit y, Cambridge M A, Est ados Unidos da América joanechaker@ g.harvard.edu

Abst ract : This art icle makes t he case for a project in t he making: a st udy of t he social

t ransformat ion of t he count ryside as it joins t he global market over t he long ninet eent h

cent ury, t old as a collect ive biography of t he mule drivers of Ot t oman Lebanon t hose

obscure peasant s who, owning one or a few mules, made t heir livelihood in t he t ransport

of goods and persons rat her t han work t he land. Over t he first half of t he cent ury, t hese

act ors mobilized for revolt s while a village- based economy t urned t o cash- crop agricult ure

and t he cent ral government built a new st at e apparat us t hat would insure it s survival

1860s t o t he First World War, as local resources were divert ed t o feed European indust ry

and local pet t y- t rade net works came undone, when elit es at all levels st ruggled t o assert

t heir cont rol over labor and resources, t hese same mulet eers t urned int o social bandit s

smugglers who d

ext ract ion. Some of t hem accumulat ed wealt h and ult imat ely int egrat ed an emerging

middle class. The project ed account makes t wo hist oriographical int ervent ions. (a) Wit hin

t he hist ory of

t ied t o development s t hat are charact erist ic of capit alism over t he period namely, t he

rise of a new kind of st at e and t he loss of cont rol over resources by local act ors at t he

margins. This approach pushes against purely cult uralist explanat ions, at t empt ing t o wed

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rural bandit s in t he Anat olian and Romanian hint erlands of t he Ot t oman Empire, as well as

wit h t he gauchos in Lat in America, ox- cart drivers in India, and rickshaw pullers in China,

t his local hist ory speaks to a global hist ory of capit alism. Reducing t he scale of analysis t o

reveal t he subject ivit y of local act ors, and linking t he cult ural norms t hat shape agency t o

object ive st ruct ural t ransformat ion t hat can be compared across cont ext s, t his project

challenges hist ories of capit alism t hat ignore t he count ryside or t he global Sout h and

t hereby produce a sanit ized account charact erized by secular polit ics and a liberal cult ure.

Keywords: Global hist ory; Rural hist ory; Social hist ory; Peasant revolt ; Subalt ern;

Capit alism; Ot t oman Empire; M iddle East ; Lebanon; Sect arianism; t he Novel (lit erary

genre); Ninet eent h cent ury.

Int roduct ion

This art icle makes t he case for a project in t he making: a st udy of t he social

t ransformat ion of t he count ryside as it joins t he global market over t he long ninet eent h

cent ury, t old as a collect ive biography of t he mule drivers of Ot t oman Lebanon t hose

obscure peasant s who, owning one or a few mules, made t heir livelihood in t he t ransport

of goods and persons rat her t han work t he land. Over t he first half of t he cent ury, t hese

act ors mobilized for revolt s while a village- based economy t urned t o cash- crop agricult ure

and t he cent ral government built a new st at e apparat us t hat would insure it s survival

From t he

1860s t o t he First World War, as local resources were divert ed t o feed European indust ry

and local pet t y- t rade net works came undone, when elit es at all levels st ruggled t o assert

t heir cont rol over labor and resources, t hese same mulet eers t urned int o social bandit s

ext ract ion. Some of t hem accumulat ed wealt h and ult imat ely int egrat ed an emerging

middle class.

The project ed account makes t wo hist oriographical int ervent ions. (a) Wit hin t he

onfessional t ensions are

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rise of a new kind of st at e and t he loss of cont rol over resources by local act ors at t he

margins. This approach pushes against purely cult uralist explanat ions, at t empt ing t o wed

cult uralist and mat erialist st ances. (b) Conversely, by drawing parallels wit h ot her mount ed

rural bandit s in t he Anat olian and Romanian hint erlands of t he Ot t oman Empire, as well as

wit h t he gauchos in Lat in America, ox- cart drivers in India, and rickshaw pullers in China,

t his local hist ory speaks to a global hist ory of capit alism. Reducing t he scale of analysis t o

reveal t he subject ivit y of local act ors, and linking t he cult ural norms t hat shape agency t o

object ive st ruct ural t ransformat ion t hat can be compared across cont ext s, t his project

challenges hist ories of capit alism t hat ignore t he count ryside or t he global Sout h and

t hereby produce a sanit ized account charact erized by secular polit ics and a liberal cult ure.

The Turn t o Cash Crop Cult ivat ion and t he Struggle Over t he Cont rol of Surplus,

1 8 0 0 - 1 8 6 0

Alt hough cot t on was an import ant fact or in t he commercializat ion of t he Ot t oman

was t obacco, which went most ly t o Egypt , where

it was rolled int o cigaret t es. The Egypt ian cigaret t e became a sought - aft er art icle of luxury

in Europe, and t obacco prices rose st eadily t hroughout t he ninet eent h cent ury.1_{This soon}

became t he richest sect or in agricult ure, and some regions namely Salonika, t he shores

of t he Adriat ic and of t he Black Sea, and part icularly Lat akia on t he Syrian coast rapidly

specialized in t obacco cult ivat ion in response t o foreign demand. Tobacco was also grown

in t he Lebanese mount ain, part icularly in t he area of Kura and in t he sout hern- most part s;

but t he most import ant export of t hat part icular region was silk. Toward t he end of t he

int erior, from France, and from Egypt increased significant ly. M arit ime t rade developed

fast along t he Syrian coast , and mulberry t rees, alongside ot her cash crops such as vines

and olives, expanded at t he expense of grains and t he varied product s of subsist ence

1 _{Oscar Wilde at t ached t he consumpt ion of Egypt ian cigaret t es t o t he image of t he dandy. See WELIVER,}

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farming. By t he early ninet eent h- cent ury, t he Lebanese mount ain import ed up t o 65

percent of it s grain consumpt ion from Egypt or t he Syrian int erior.2

The growing capacit y of t his economy t o generat e cash soon at t ract ed t he

at t ent ion of t he st at e and of elit es at all levels, who fought for t he cont rol of t his t rade

and t he profit it generat ed by championing compet ing polit ical project s for t he region. This

narrat ive can serve t o frame t he 1820 revolt by peasant s in t he nort hern Lebanese

mount ain refusing t o pay addit ional t axes imposed by a new provincial governor in Akka;

t he mount ing t ensions among t he elit es t hemselves t hroughout t he mount ain; t he

exp

mout hpiece of t he grieved peasant s of nort hern Lebanon.3_{The biggest cont ender for}

cont rol over t he growing Syrian- Egypt ian t rade, however, was t he separat ist provincial

his rule, Beirut rose t o prominence among t he port s of t he Syrian coast , and t he Beirut

-Zahle road was opened t o link t he int erior t o t he port . This expanded market s and credit t o

t he peasant s, encouraging t he shift t o mulberry t rees, olive t rees, and grapevine, as well as

t obacco. M ost import ant ly, wit h t he spread of sericult ure and demographic growt h, land

increased in value. This period again saw peasant rebellions, in Hawran in 1837- 1838, and

in t he nort hern part s of M ount Lebanon in 1840.4

t he ret aliat ion of a new Sult an in Ist anbul. In 1839, Abdülmecid promulgat ed t he

Tanzimat, a regime of reforms promising fair t axat ion, an end t o t rade rest rict ions, securit y

2_{AKARLI, Engin Deniz.}

The Long Peace: Ot t oman Lebanon, 1861- 1920. Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: Universit y of California Press, 1993, p. 17- 8; ISSAWI, Charles (ed.). The Economic Hist ory of Turkey, 1800-1914. Chicago: Universit y of Chicago Press, 1980, p. 49, 52, 250- 2; ____. The Economic Hist ory of t he M iddle East , 1800- 1914. Chicago and London: The Universit y of Chicago Press, 1966, p. 229; M URPHY, Rhoads. Tobacco Cult ivat ion in Nort hern Syria and Condit ions of it s M arket ing and Dist ribut ion in t he Lat e Eight eent h Cent ury. Turcica 17, 1985, p. 207- 11; QUATAERT, Donald. Social Disint egrat ion and Popular Resist ance in t he Ot t oman Empire, 1881- 1908: React ions t o European Economic Penet rat ion. New York and

London: New York Universit y Press, 1983, p. 13; TOKSÖZ, M elt em. The Çukurova: From Nomadic Life t o

Commercial Agricult ure, 1800 1908. Ph.D .dissert at ion, St at e Universit y of New York at Binghamt on, 2000.

Op. Cit ., p. 19, 21, 26.

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of propert y and life, and t he equit able t reat ment of all subject s before t he law. The t hrust

of t he Gülhane rescript , t he Hat t - of 1839, and of t he programmat ic direct ive

t hat followed it in t he nizamname of 1840, was t o remove t he t ax farmer, cast as

parasit ic, so t hat more just ly assessed t axat ion develops t he wealt h of t he product ive

households of t he empire.5_{While t he reforms were present ed as prot ect ing t he peasant ry}

against excessive exploit at ion, in pract ice, t hey promised t o disent angle land from t he web

of layered right s t hat prohibit ed it s commercializat ion, so t hat it could serve as collat eral.

The product ion of cash crops for a global market necessit at ed credit , and credit required

collat eral. In t hat sense, t he reform program announced in 1839 cat ered t o t he int erest s of

European indust rialist s, credit ors, and financiers who would profit from t hat financing and

t hing t hat can impede commerce or

agricult ure shall be abolished. To accomplish t hese object s means shall be sought t o profit

6_{Thus t he edict promised t o open t he}

region up t o European capit al. Effect ively, European st at es, in support of t heir own

capit alist s, soon backed t he Sult an: in 1841, Ibrahim was pushed back by a joint Brit ish,

Aust rian, and Ot t oman campaign. In t his account , t he reforms cannot be separat ed from

t he 1838 t rade convent ions signed by t he Ot t oman st at e wit h t he Brit ish, French, Russians,

and Aust rians, inaugurat ing a period of free t rade.

This open- door policy gave Europeans and t heir local associat es an advant age over

ot her local merchant s, landed not ables, and art isans, who became dependent on t he

former for credit and business. In t he Lebanese mount ain, moreover, t he elit es who had

been oust ed by Ibrahim for siding wit h t he Ot t omans ret urned t o reclaim est at es t hey

considered t heir own, only t o be faced by peasant s who refused t o be considered t enant s.

Percept ions of propriet orship were already changing, but t hey were st ill being disput ed. As

t he lords were Druze and t he peasant ry M aronit e, t he conflict t urned int o a bloody

sect arian war in 1841. As a solut ion, and under European pressure, t he cent ral government

split t he region int o t wo qaim- maqamiyyas, or dist rict s, one formally dedicat ed t o t he

5_{M UNDI, M art ha; SAUM AREZ Richard.}

Governing Propert y, M aking t he M odern St at e: Law, Administ rat ion and Product ion in Ot t oman Syria. London: I.B Tauris, 2007; p. 41, 44.

6 _{BEININ, Joel.}

Workers and Farmers in t he M odern M iddle East. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge

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M aronit es and one t o t he Druzes. It

at t empt ed a cadast ral survey but was

blocked by t he elit es, w ho fought among

t hemselves and against t he peasant ry t o

assert cont rol over as much land as

possible.7_{In Kisrawan, a region wit hin t he}

qaim- maqamiyya, t he

imposit ion of harsh t enancy condit ions led

t o a revolt by t he peasant s of Kisrawan in

1858- 1859, t he expulsion t he local Khazin

lords, and t he t ake- over of t heir propert y.

The peasant s furt her sout h were soon

moved by t he same spirit here however,

t he peasant s were M aronit e while t he lords

were Druze, and t he st rife t urned sect arian,

t he European powers each int ervening on behalf of a sect . This was resolved wit h an

Règlement

inst it ut ing t he mut asarrif iyya ruled by a cent rally appoint ed Christ ian governor in

consult at ion wit h a locally elect ed council. Each village elect ed a sheikh, and t hose sheikhs

elect ed t he councilors. That council had t he power t o vet o t ax increases and had t he

unt t he populat ion as well as measure and assess t he value

of cult ivat ed land and income- yielding buildings, begun in 1861, was complet ed in 1869.

This survey provided t he basis for t he propert y t ax, which remained fixed unt il t he

mandat e period.8

Op. Cit ., p. 24- 9.

Op. Cit ., p. 29, 106- 7; CHEVALIER, Dominique. Aux origines des t roubles agraires

Libanais en 1858. Annales, 14, 1959, p. 44- 51; PORATH, Yehoshua. The Peasant Revolt of 1858- 1861 in

Kisraw an. Asian and African St udies, 2, 1966, p. 77- 157; BUHEIRY, M arw an. Op. Cit ., p. 291- 302; KERR,

M alcolm (ed.). Lebanon in t he Last Years of Feudalism, 1840- 1860: A Cont emporary Account by Ant un Dahir

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Almanack. Guarulhos, n.14, p.27- 51 dossiê scales of global hist ory The M ulet eers as M ut ineers, 1 8 0 0 - 1 8 6 0

Despit e ment ions, t ime and again, of mulet eers st anding out from t he riot ing

crowd, t heir role as an import ant mobilizing force in t he peasant revolt s ment ioned in t he

previous sect ion has gone unnot ed. Tanyos Shahin, t he renowned leader of t he revolt of

1858 ment ioned above, was a farrier t urned mulet eer.9_{M ansur But rus Abu Ant oine and}

But rus Tannus, prominent rebels capt ured during t he same uprising and beat en unt il blood

t he mulet eer of t he village of Rayfun and

10

Why were t hose working in rural t ransport more likely t o lead t he revolt s? The

answer is which t he

aut hors not e t hat t heir subject s were self - employed, mobile, in cont act wit h large

numbers of humble people, and independent from pat rons, wealt hy client s and

employers.11_{All t hese at t ribut es were equally t rue of workers in rural t ransport , who}

owned t heir means of product ion t he world over. A st udy of rickshaw men who led popular

12_{Flexible and}

mobile, t he Banjara ox- cart drivers of ninet eent h- cent ury Indian Berar were described as

13_{In t he t urn- of- t he- cent ury novel by t he Lebanese}

aut hor Ameen Rihani ent it led The M ulet eer and t he Priest, t he Lebanese mulet eer, t oo,

14

int elligent because he spends most of his t ime in cont emplat ive solit ude, in t he t ranquilit y

9 _{YAZBAK, Yusuf Ibrahim.}

Al- Judhur al- t arikhiyya li al- harb al- lubnaniyya[The Hist orical Root Causes of t he Lebanese War]. Beirut : Naw fal, 1993. p. 268.

10 _{M AKDISI, Ussama. Corrupt ing t he Sublime Sult anat e: The Revolt of Tanyus Shahin in Ninet eent h - Cent ury}

Ot t oman Lebanon. Comparat ive St udies in Societ y and Hist ory, v. 42, n. 1, Jan. 2000, p. 207.

11 _{HOBSBAWM , Eric J.; SCOTT, Joan Wallach. Polit ical Shoemakers.}_{Past & Present}_{, 89, Nov. 1980, p. 103.} 12 _{STRAND, David.}_{Rickshaw Beijing:}_{Cit y People and Polit ics in t he 1920s. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London:}

Universit y of California Press, 1989. p. 61, 63.

13_{SATYA, Laxman D.}

Cot t on and Famine in Berar, 1850- 1900. New Delhi: M anohar, 1997. p. 247, 259.

14

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of mount ains, valleys and plains. Precisely because of t his solit ude, one can imagine t he

mulet eers t o have been open and ready for conversat ion when in company. They collect ed

many anecdot es wit h which t hey ent ert ained t heir passengers.15_{The mulet eers met each}

ot her at t he inns, where t hey could share t he news of t he day glanced while roaming

different part s. Tanyos Shahin, t he mulet eer who led t he peasant revolt of 1858, had

t raveled part icularly widely for t he t imes. As he often worked for t he missionary school in

Rayfun, t he Lazarist monks had obt ained for him credent ials from t he French consulat e

t hat allowed him t o pass int ernal borders.16_{Travel was equally import ant in t he charact er}

it allowed him t o reckon

t hat povert y was not a circumst ant ial problem beset t ing a number of individuals, but a

societ y- wide, st ruct ural issue:

Running behind my mules, roaming t he mount ains from t he sout h end t o t he nort h, I realized t hat t he rich among t he people were very few, count able on t he fingers of t wo hands. And I realized t hat t he people, consist ing of sharecroppers

goods t hen? In whose hands are t hey? In whose coffers is t he money accumulat ing? Who is eat ing t he harvest ?17

Joined t hrough t heir work t o t he basic rhyt hms of rural life, rural t ransport workers

had a privileged perspect ive of societ y at large.

ness t o accept

new ideas. In his cont inual peregrinat ions, t he mulet eer met people from all ranks and

discovered many villages.18_{Tanyos Shahin learned a lot from his discussions wit h t he}

Lazarist missionaries as he drove t hem back and fort h; not only could he repeat French

-account s even spoke some It alian.19_{In t hat he resembled t he rickshaw men, who were} 20

Similarly, mingling freely wit h people from all across t he sub- cont inent , t he Banjaras

15_{RIHANI, Ameen.}

Al- M ukari w a- l- Kahin [The M ulet eer and t he Priest ]. Beirut : Dar al- Rihani li- l- -

l-Nashr, 1969. p. 8- 10.

16 _{M AKDISI, Ussama.}

Op. Cit ., p. 194.

17_{RIHANI, Ameen.}

Al- M ukari, 1969, p.36- 7.

18

Ibidem, p.10, 14.

19 _{KERR, M alcolm.}

Op. Cit ., p. 22; YAZBAK, Yusuf Ibrahim. Op. Cit ., p. 268.

20 _{STRAND, David.}

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spoke many languages and acquired t he abilit y t o communicat e wit h very different people

wit h equal ease.21

M ore import ant ly, as he was likely t o be hi

22_{A person}

his opinions, which t here was no reason t o

23_{The mulet eer or t he cart driver had conversat ions wit h his numerous client s}

individually rat her t han in big groups, on t he lonesome journey bet ween villages. At t he

same t ime, he could always find an audience, and like t he rickshaw pullers, had t he power

t o spread rumors and t o move individual grievances int o t he public realm.24_{For all t hese}

reasons, he was st rat egically well placed t o circulat e ideas and perhaps even mobilize for

act ion.

Capit alist Transf ormat ion f rom t he Perspect ive of t he Subalt ern, 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 1 4

Land reforms and ot her legal innovat ions worked alongside t echnical innovat ions,

such as railroads, t o provide t he European indust ry wit h vit al primary mat erials. Yet t hese

forces also meant t he ext inct ion of local market net works and t he dying out of t he local

economy. Nat urally, t he act ors t o apprehend t his t rend first and foremost were t hose

working in rural t ransport.

- colonial t imes exhibit ed

complex net work of fairs and bazars along which t heir cart s move 25_{At every village fair}

and weekly Bazar in

pre-26_{Similarly, t he Lebanese mulet eers}

Op. Cit ., p. 247, 249, 252.

22

Ibidem, p. 247.

23 _{HOBSBAWM , Eric J.; SCOTT, Joan Wallach.}

Op. Cit ., p. 103- 4.

24 _{STRAND, David.}

Op. Cit ., p. 63.

Op. Cit ., p. 260.

26

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modern- day Syria, and against t ext iles and food bought in t he cit ies along t he way.27

Throughout t he lat t er half of t he ninet eent h cent ury, however, t he t ransport infrast ruct ure

developed quickly wit h the aim of opening t he count ry t o t he world market . The Beirut

-Damascus road, linking t he hint erland across t he mount ain range t o t he rapidly developing

port , was complet ed in 1863. In place of t he t hree- day- journey on horseback from

Damascus t o Beirut across t he mount ain, it offered a daily coach service t hat t ook a mere

t hirt een hours. At t he t urn of t he cent ury, a railroad connect ing t he t wo cit ies t hrough t he

mount ain (quit e lit erally, by a t unnel) made t he journey even short er, and exponent ially

increased t he t ransport capacit y. Built and run by foreign capit al, t hat same line ext ended

t o t he grain- producing region of Hawran.28

This had been an import ant rout e for t he mulet eers. M odern t ransport not only put

rural t ransport workers out of business. It also undid local t rade net works more generally.

The Damascene sheikh al- Qasimi records in his dict ionary:

A very frequent t rade before t he railroad passed t hrough, t here used t o be no less

This was very lucrat ive t o t he people, merchant s, grain vendors, fodder vendors, and innkeepers. All t his has come t o be missed in Damascus; t his t rade has declined infinit ely, and t hose who pract ice it have become very few in numbers, God only knows t he reason why, t here is no Lord but He.29

eople in art icles of daily

30_{According t o Sat ya:}

The railw ay in Berar primarily t ransport ed cot t on but t he Banjara bullock cart s carried bot h cot t on and grains. Aft er t he demise of Banjaras t he cot t on was t ransport ed by European firms and moneylenders in t heir own cart s. The grain

27_{QASIM I, M uhammad Said; QASIM I, Jamal al- Din;}

AL-Qamus al- - Shamiyya

[The Dict ionary of Damascene Trades]. Ed. AL- QASIM I, Thafir. Paris: M out on & Co., 1960, p. 466.

28 _{AKARLI, Engin Deniz.}

Op. Cit ., p. 113- 4; ISSAWI. The Economic Hist ory of t he M iddle East, part icularly Part IV

Chapt er 4.

29_{QASIM I M uhammad Said; QASIM I, Jamal al- Din;}

Op. Cit ., p. 466.

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Almanack. Guarulhos, n.14, p.27- 51 dossiê scales of global hist ory Wit h t his disappearance many small art icles of daily consumpt ion which were hit hert o available t o t he village populat ion were no longer available.31

In short , wit h t he land reforms, resources in t he periphery converged t owards t he

railway syst em t hat t hrust t hem int o indust rial Europe. The t ransit ion ef fect ed by t he

forces of supply and demand was hast ened wit h regulat ion aimed at furt her limit ing

int ernal commerce, t hereby speeding up t he deat h of local indust ry.32_{This st ory is normally}

t old as a sequel t o t he forced dispossession and coerced labor effect ed by foreign armies,

as t hey were in t he Americas or in India.33_{Bringing t hese diverse backgrounds int o a single}

narrat ive encompassing t he Ot t oman Empire, where a local elit e was part and parcel of t he

t ransformat ion, may serve t o quest ion t he dist inct ion bet ween war capit alism and

capit alism t out court.

The M ulet eers as Social Bandit s, 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 1 4

Smuggling was an effort on t he part of mulet eers t o st ay in business. Yet t hat

same act ivit y benefit ed t he peasant ry more broadly. Again, t he bandit - mulet eers have

gone unnot ed by hist orians, despit e ment ions in t he sources of Lebanese mulet eers

smuggling now t obacco, t hen wheat , at a t ime w hen t hese product s were cont rolled by

monopolist s or requisit ioned for army provisioning.

During t he famine t hat preceded t he First World War in Lebanon, when t he Turkish

army was requisit ioning foodst uffs, Druze mulet eers in bands of fift een t o t went y

undert ook expedit ions t o t he neighboring Druze mount ain of Hawran, from where t hey

smuggled back wheat .34_{This was part icularly vit al t o t he peasant ry when food was}

scarce.35_{The smuggling not only ensured survival in t imes of famine; more generally, it}

31

Ibidem, p. 264.

32

Ibidem, p. 260- 1, 265- 7.

Op. Cit .,

BECKERT, Sven. Empire of Cot t on: A Global Hist ory. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2015. Chapt er 4: Lat e Vict orian Holocaust s: El Niño Famines and

t he M aking of t he Third World. London: Verso, 2001.

34_{UNITED KINGDOM , HOUSE OF COM M ONS. Report for t he Year 1886 on t he Trade of Beyrout . In:}

Sessional Papers, 1887. London: William Clowes and Sons, for HM SO, 1806- 1908. 503- 10, p. 509; BRAND, Tylor. Lives Darkened by Calamit y: Enduring t he Famine of World War I in Lebanon and West ern Syria. Ph.D. diss., American Universit y of Beirut , 2014, p. 123- 4.

35

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g net works delegit imized by t he new. It worked

against st at e monopolies and barriers t o ent ry inherent in t he new scale of product ion and

market ing, t hus pushing back against t he prolet arianizat ion of t he peasant ry. In t he 1880s,

French and Brit ish officia

in and out of Lebanon.36_{As t he Druze populat ion was ent irely set t led, and in view of t he}

bands of mulet eers involved in wheat smuggling, it is safe t o assume t hat t he French

report ers had confused t hese bands of mulet eers for nomads. The Ot t oman Public Debt

Administ rat ion est imat ed t hat a good t hird of t obacco consumed in t he empire escaped

t he cont rol of a foreign- owned t obacco Régie during t he first five years of operat ions from

1883.37_{Quat aert cit ed more drast ic figures, such as t he est imat e of an Ot t oman employee}

38

The smuggling was as beneficial t o t he peasant s as it was t o t he mulet eers. The

growers declared less t han t he surface t hey act ually cult ivat ed and sold t he undeclared

was considered a form of rect ificat ion compensat ing t he cult ivat ors for t he loss of income

caused by Régie pract ices. Smuggling also spared t he farmer t axes, and spared him shares

t o t he landlord when he was a sharecropper.39_{The t obacco was t hen secret ly sold in}

Damascus t hrough t he t ut unji (t obacco vendor), or t hrough f arram al- t at an (lit erally t he

t obacco chopper), t hereby sust aining local art isans who ot herwise could not compet e

against t he export ers for t heir primary mat erial.40

For t hese reasons, t hese mulet eers- t urned- smugglers were considered men of

wort h in t he peasant communit y:

36_{VERNEY, Noël; DAM BM ANN George.}

Les Puissances Et rangères dans le Levant en Syrie et en Palest ine. Paris: Guillaumin, 1900, p. 184.

37 _{THOBIE, Jacques.}

- 1914). Paris: Imprimerie

Nat ionale, 1977, p. 187.

38 _{QUATAERT, Donald.}

Op. Cit ., p. 19, 21.

39

Ibidem, p. 18- 9. THOBIE, Jacques. Op. Cit ., p. 187.

40_{QASIM I M uhammad Said; QASIM I, Jamal al- Din;}

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Almanack. Guarulhos, n.14, p.27- 51 dossiê scales of global hist ory The inherent risk of smuggling increased t he price of t he t rafficked food when it was sold in t he villages, but it is int erest ing t o not e t hat t he mount ain smugglers were not regarded wit h t he same social st igma as were t he smuggler appears in numerous memoirs and recollect ions of t he period, more oft en t han not in laudat ory t erms. To some ext ent , t his may have been because t hey were seen less as parasit es seeking t o exploit t heir own people, but rat her as int repid villains cast in t he mold of Robin Hood, whose aim w as t o deceive t he hat ed Turks t o supply t heir own people.41

engraved t oday in t he oral account s of a t hird generat ion, which proudly relat es t hese

42_{Tanyos Shahin, t he head of t he revolt}

of 1860, was a sort of folk hero.43_{The Prot est ant missionary M alcom Kerr depreciat ingly}

- associat ing him wit h t he social bandit

par excellence.44 Similarly, in colonial Berar, legendary bandit s and highwaymen like M it u

Bhukia who defied st at e aut horit y were worshipped as symbols of Banjara independence

and prot est .45

Int o t he Twent iet h Century: The M ulet eers as Pragmat ic Individuals

A bandit may accumulat e capit al. His redist ribut ions are oft en a price for refuge,

secure land and merge w it h a new bourgeoisie.46_{This view has been t aken t o it s ext reme}

47

prot ect ion. The bandit s t hat survive, t hen, are t hose who place t heir part icular int erest s

41_{BRAND, Tylor.}

Op. Cit ., p. 157- 8.

42 _{BRAND, Tylor.}

Op. Cit.

43 _{FAWWAZ, Leila.}

An Occasion f or War: Civil Conflict in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Universit y of California Press, 1994. p. 45.

44_{KERR, M alcolm.}

Op. Cit ., 22.

Op. Cit ., 256.

46_{HOBSBAWM , Eric J.}

Bandit s, p. 95, 105, 118.

47_{BLOK, Ant on.}

The M af ia of a Sicilian Village: A St udy of Violent Peasant Ent repreneurs, 1860- 1960. Oxford:

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ahead of everyt hing else.48_{Effect ively, t he Lebanese mulet eers, small- t ime merchant s,}

were well placed t o t ake advant age of t he t ransforming economy.49_{Oral account s}

document ing t he famine t he swept t hrough t he Lebanese mount ain during t he First World

War reveal t hat some mulet eers accumulat ed wealt h by smuggling, and ult imat ely

int egrat ed an emerging middle class. Because of his involvement in smuggling, t he family

of mulet eer Jammul M ahmud did not suffer from t he famine. The int erviewee who

report ed t his also conveyed t hat her mat ernal family, by cont rast t o t hat of her pat ernal

grandfat her Jammul M ahmud, suffered severe deprivat ion despit e her mat ernal

majlis al- . M ore import ant ly, we also

him t o amass enough capit al t o buy land.50

Wit h t ime, t he social st ruct ures t hat had support ed peasant resist ance changed.

Inevit ably, t he mulet eers, gauchos, and rickshaw pullers were displaced by railroads and

mot orcars. Yet all t hese charact ers figured in t he early t went iet h cent ury as prot agonist s

in novels. The lit erary genre of t he Arabic novel, in it self, was t he result of a t ension

, t he t radit ional

cult ure, on t he one hand, and on t he ot her, t he rediscovery and st imulat ion of t he great

classical herit age of Arab- 51_{While t he new lit erary form reflect ed a desire}

t o modernize, resort t o t he classical herit age or focus on t he t radit ional peasant ry could be

read as t he affirmat ion of an imagined ident it y in t he face of dissolut ion in a globalizing

world bot h on t he part of t he aut hor and his readers, all members of an emerging middle

class.52_{This was t he case in ninet eent h- cent ury Argent ina. As int egrat ion int o t he global}

market drew waves of immigrant s t o t he Rio de la Plat a, romant icist s resort ed t o t he

48

Idem. The Peasant and t he Brigand: Social Bandit ry Reconsidered. Comparat ive St udies in Societ y and Hist ory,14, 1972, p. 495 - 504.

Op. Cit ., p. 251.

50_{BRAND, Tylor.}

Op. Cit ., p.110, 124.

51_{ALLEN, Roger.}

The Arabic Novel: An Hist orical and Crit ical Int roduct ion. New York: Syracuse Universit y Press,

1995, p. 11- 2.

52_{For a linking bet ween t he emergence of t he novel as a lit erary form and t he format ion of a middle class,}

see: BENJAM IN, Walt er. The St oryt eller. In: HALE, Dorot hy J. (ed.). The Novel: An Ant hology of Crit icism and

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figure of t he gaucho t o affirm a nat ional ident it y.53_{Similarly, in China, writ ers and poet s}

oft en feat ured rickshaw - men as cent ral charact ers so oft en t hat one can refer t o

life t o t he nat ure of capit alism.54_{Wit hin t he confines of what was t he Ot t oman Empire,}

t he bandit eering cat t le drovers known as t he Hajduks made it int o t he novels of Panait

Ist rat i;55_{Anat olian bandit lore is perpet uat ed t o t his day in t he horseman M ehmed, t he}

hero of Ya

ş

ar - selling novel, inspired by st ories Kemal heard from bandit s

seeking refuge in his village;56_{and t he Lebanese mulet eer made an appearance in t he}

novel of Ameen Rihani.

t he

57 _{The act ors involved in rural t ransport effect ively wit nessed first hand}

t he dissolut ion of communit y. Their reappearance in t he burgeoning lit erary genre of t he

novel gives t heir st ory an epilogue, and t heir hist orian a sense of t he visceral angst t hat

accompanied t he crossover int o modern liberalism.

Theoret ical St akes: On t he Ot t oman Rural Cont ext Is it Capit alism?

As det ailed in t he first sect ion of t his art icle, during t he first six decades of t he

ninet eent h cent ury, a series of popular uprisings racked t he Lebanese count ryside. These

event s were init ially explained in t erms of religious int olerance t o t he modernizing

Ot t oman reforms, part icularly t o t he int roduct ion of t he cat egory of cit izenship, which

53 _{FERRERAS, Norbert o O. Bandoleiros, cangaceiros e mat reiros: revisão da hist oriografia sobre o Bandit ismo}

Social na América Lat ina. Hist ória, 22, 2, 2003. Accessed online at ht t p://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0101-90742003000200012 on August 1, 2016.

54 _{STRAND, David.}_{Op. Cit .,}_{p. 21, 23.} 55_{The Hungarian word}_{hajt ók}_or_hajdók

infant ry referred t o by t he Ot t omans as Hajduks, and t he word came t o signify t he out laws, brigands, and highwaymen romant icized in t he folkloric t radit ion of Sout heast ern Europe as freedom fight ers. See www.familyt reedna.com/public/hajdu, accessed on January 9, 2016.

56_{BIRCH, Nicholas. Ya}ş_{ar Kemal's Disappearing World of St ories.}

The Guardian, November 28, 2008. Accessed online at ht t p://www.t heguardian.com/books/2008/nov/28/yasar- kemal, on January 9, 2016. The novel in quest ion is Ince M emed, or M emed, M y Haw k (1955), and t he same hero feat ured in subsequent novels by

t he same aut hor.

57 _{BENJAM IN, Walt er.}

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limit ed t he right of confessional minorit ies t o self - management .58 _{A nat ionalist}

hist oriography lat er point ed t o t he manipulat ion of t he various confessional

denominat ions against each ot her by European or Ot t oman int erest s for t he sake of

geopolit ics suggest ing an ot herwise- homogeneous Lebanese societ y.59 _Economic

development s and t he at t ending social t ransformat ion only moved cent er st age wit h t he

advent of Brit ish- st yle economic- hist ory and t he French Annales school t o Lebanese

hist oriography. Bot h approaches relied on macroeconomic analysis and quant it at ive dat a

t o highlight t hat ot her aspect of t he Ot t oman modernizing reforms: t he

incorporat ion int o t he global market , wit h t he at t ending t ransformat ions in land- t enure,

prices, and relat ions of product ion.60

Against t his background of st ruct ural economic t ransformat ion, some hist orians

resort ed t o t he cat egories of polit ical economy, drawing comparisons bet ween t he

Lebanese revolt of 1858 and t he German Bauernkrieg of 1525.61_{However, t hey became}

ent angled in t he debat es associat ed wit h t hat approach: could one speak of class when

t he peasant s were backing t he elit es on bot h sides of a confessional war? 62_Overall,

58 _{For inst ance, M AOZ, M oshe. Communal Conflict s in Ot t oman Syria during t he Reform Era: The Role of}

Polit ical and Economic Fact ors. In: BRAUDE Benjamin; LEWIS, Bernard (eds.). Christ ians and Jew s in t he Ot t oman Empire: The Funct ioning of a Plural Societ y. New York: Holmes and M eier, 1982, p. 91- 105.

59 _{For example, NUJAIM , Bulos (M . Jouplain).}

La Quest ion du Liban:

int ernat ional. Paris: Librairie Nouvelle de Droit et de Jurisprudence, 1908.

60_{CHEVALIER, Dominique.} _{. Paris:}

Universit y of Chicago Press, 1971; ____. Aux origines des t roubles agraires libanais. In: ISSAWI, Charles (ed.). The Economic Hist ory of t he M iddle East; OWEN, Roger. The Silk- Reeling Indust ry of M ount Lebanon, 1840- 1914: A St udy of t he Possibilit ies and Limit at ions of Fact ory Product ion in t he Periphery. In: ISLAM OGLU- INAN, Huri (ed.). The Ot t oman Empire and t he World Economy. New York: Cambridge Universit y Press, 2004, p. 270- 3; WEULERSSE, Jacques. Paysans de la Syrie et du Proche Orient. Paris: Gallimard, 1946.

Bloch.

61 _{BAER, Gabriel.}

Fellah and Tow nsman in t he M iddle East : St udies in Social Hist ory. New York: Frank Cass and Company Limit ed, 1982, p. 272, 278.

62_{Compare SM ILIANSKAYA, I. M . The Disint egrat ion of Feudal Relat ions in Syria and Lebanon in t he M iddle of}

re- t it led , in: ISSAWI,

Charles (ed.). The Economic Hist ory of t he M iddle East; and BUHEIRI, M arw an. Op. Cit., part icularly p. 291. Relat ed t o t his debat e is t he quest ion of whet her t he syst em of land holding in t he Lebanese mount ain can be referred t o as feudal. Placing t he local landholding syst em of somewhere in bet ween Ot t oman

ilt izam and t hirt eent h- cent ury European feudalism, some hist orians of Lebanon claimed a special st at us for

t he region wit hin t he Ot t

-lit erat ure, however, shows t hat Lebanon unt il t he eight eent h cent ury w as more similar t o t he rest of t he empire, t he assumpt ion of difference act ually relying on a t eleological account const ruct ed wit h t he lat er ninet eent h- cent ury cont ext in mind. See AKARLI, Engin Deniz. Op. Cit ., p. 27 n. 50. This debat e is

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economic and confessional ident it ies did not map ont o each ot her. This is generally t rue of

63_{In line wit h}

t his t endency, a more recent Lebanese hist oriography abandoned t he cat egories of

polit ical economy in favor of discourse analysis. The event s of 1858 are t hus explained by

Ussama M akdisi as popular religious mobilizat ion against a rigid nonsect arian social

nowledge over ignorance. In t his view, t he

mobilizat ion reflect s a subalt ern underst anding of Ot t oman modernizat ion.64

Cult ure and ideology have an abiding role in shaping hist ory; however, t he ef fort t o

avoid economic reduct ionism oft en ends up paying t oo lit t le at t ent ion t o mat erial

condit ions. The approach proposed in t his art icle weds t he cult uralist and mat erialist

st ances by showing how t he mulet eers milit ancy was t ied t o t he mat erial condit ions of

t heir t rade. Being engaged in t ransport bet ween village and t own, mulet eers spoke t o

people from all walks of life. They were well informed and exposed t o t he ideas of a wider

world. Perpet ual wit nesses joined t hrough t heir work t o t he pulse of t he rural economy,

t hey had a privileged perspect ive of societ y at large. In addit ion, t heir independence from a

landlord, t heir ownership of t heir means of product ion, and t heir organic connect ion t o

peasant societ y made t hem plausible spokesmen. For all t hese reasons, t hey were

st rat egically well placed t o circulat e ideas and even mobilize for act ion. Rat her t han work

wit h an exact ing definit ion of class, reducing t he scale of analysis t o a hist ory of t he

mulet eer sheds light on t he ment alit ies t hat led people t o see cert ain uses of land, price

movement s, or market arrangement s as just or unjust . It brings out logic behind t he lines

of social solidarit y t hat cannot be apprehended only in light of confessional loyalt ies or

solely in t erms of class analysis.65

63 _{CHAKRABARTY, Dipesh.}

Provincializing Europe: Post colonial Thought and Hist orical Difference. Princet on: Princet on Universit y Press, 2007, p. 48; ____. Subalt ern St udies and Post colonial Hist oriography. Neplant a:

Views from t he Sout h, 1, 2000, p. 26.

64 _{M AKDISI, Ussama.}

Op. Cit ., p. 181- 3.

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Almanack. Guarulhos, n.14, p.27- 51 dossiê scales of global hist ory Theoret ical St akes: W hat is Capit alism? A Perspect ive f rom t he Ot t oman Count ryside.

The perpet uat ion of t he hierarchies and cult ure of t he ancien régime in t he global

Sout h cont rast ed

fundament ally wit h t he rising import ance of modern cit izenship and secular polit ics in t he

West .66

world.67_{In pushback, a global hist ory approach insist s t hat et hnic, religious, and communal}

discourses might very well be perpet uat ed by t he dynamics of capit alism, as long as t hey

, resources, and market s. In t his view, w hat is

common across t he various cont ext s and an import ant charact erist ic of capit alism is a

st rengt hening of t he st at e. Capit alism required t he mobilizat ion of resources on a new

scale. Capit alist s in West ern Europe creat ed powerful st at es t hat expanded t heir market s

and lent t hem support in t heir vent ures abroad. Elit es in t he periphery soon followed,

building st at es t hat would defend t heir market s and support t hem in t hat compet it ion.68

In t his cont ext , t he Crimean War of 1850s is one of a series of wars t hat

inaugurat e a period of milit ary compet it ion on an unprecedent ed scale bet ween st at es of a

new kind.69_{To cover t his expendit ure and repay it s foreign debt , t he Ot t oman government}

invest ed in infrast ruct ure t hat reached deep int o t he count ryside, t ight ened fiscal cont rol,

and creat ed monopolies on t obacco, salt , and ot her commodit ies. When European

financiers came t o cont rol Ot t oman st at e revenues t hrough t he Public Debt Administ rat ion

in t he 1880s, cent ralizat ion only int ensified, and more so wit h t he nat ionalist revolut ion of

1908. Throughout t hese event s, local elit es at varying levels adopt ed different discourses

for t he purpose of popular mobilizat ion in t he face of more dist ant capit alist s be t hey in

. This framework could at once explain

66 _{Hegemony is defined as reliance on consent rat her t han coercion. See GUHA, Ranajit .}

Dominance Wit hout Hegemony: Hist ory and Power in Colonial India. Cambridge and London: Harvard Universit y Press, 1998 ; ____. On Some Aspect s of t he Hist oriography of Colonial India. In: _____. Ed. Subalt ern St udies I: Writ ings on Sout h Asian Hist ory & Societ y. Delhi: Oxford Universit y Press, 1982, p. 43.

67 _{CHAKRABARTY, Dipesh. Subalt ern St udies and Post colonial Hist oriography, 15, 20; CHATTERJEE, Part ha. The}

Nat ion and it s Peasant s. In: _____ (ed.) The Nat ion and it s Fragment s: Colonial and Post colonial Hist ories. Princet on: Princet on Universit y Press, 1993, p. 165.

68 _{BECKERT, Sven.}

Op. Cit ., p. xv, 313- 6, 396; CHIBBER, Vivek. Post colonial Theory and t he Spect er of Capit al.

London, New York: Verso, 2013, p. 24- 6; 78- 9; M AIER, Charles. Leviat han 2.0: Invent ing M odern St at ehood.

Cambridge and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard Universit y Press, 2012.

69 _{M AIER, Charles.}

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Lebanese or Arab nat ionalisms as well as Pan- Islamism.70_{It could equally explain more}

parochial and regional confessional t ensions as const it uent s of a hist ory of capit alism.

Nonet heless, because it is t old from t he perspective of t he elit e, t his account remains

divorced from subalt ern polit ical psychology. It does not address what Guha refers t o as

71

A hist ory of rural transport workers is niched in t his gap: it is a descript ion of t he

dynamics of capit alism as perceived by t he subalt ern. Legal innovat ions such as land

reforms, and t echnological improvement s such as railroads, t he hallmarks of t he capit alist

t ransit ion, are most oft en t hought of as processes t hat make market s. Paving t he way for

direct t axat ion and commercial credit , t hey open t he count ryside t o global capit al and t ie

it int o t he global market . What t his pict ure leaves out is t he local economy t hat comes

undone when resources in t he periphery are divert ed for t he benefit of global capit al.

Necessarily, t he act ors working in rural t ransport felt first hand t he local pet t y- t rade

net works coming undone. Rural societ ies expressed t heir opposit ion by part icipat ing in, or

at least acquiescing t o, smuggling. By smuggling, t hese mulet eers worked t o preserve a

local economy weakened by st at e policies and t he barriers t o ent ry inherent in t he new

scales of product ion and market ing. They also fought against a new precariousness t hat

arose when t he diversit y of art icles of

unavailable. For t his reason, t hese mulet eers t urned smugglers were considered men of

wort h in t he peasant communit y local Robin Hoods, so t o speak, in line wit h t he social

bandit s t hat Hobsbawm f ound in all t radit ional rural societ ies resist ing t he incursion of t he

st at e int o t he count ryside.72

Conclusion

Where a global hist ory of capit alism may pass over parochial polit ical psychology,

and while a post colonial hist ory privileges local cult ure in t he confines of the fragment ,

70 _{In t heir compet it ion again}

] ,

Sven. Op. Cit ., p. 417- 8.

71 _{GUHA, Ranajit . On Some Aspect s of t he Hist oriography of Colonial India, p. 39- 42.} 72 _{HOBSBAWM , Eric J.}

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t he mulet eers st ory holds bot h part icularit y and resonance. The part icularit y gives t he

reader a sense of t he palpable life behind t he hist ory; t he resonance makes t he hist ory

relevant t o a wider t heoret ical cont ext .

t o t he mat erial condit ions of his t rade and t o his economic relat ionships, t his hist orical

narrat ive links t he cult ural norms t hat shape agency t o object ive st ruct ural t ransformat ion

t hat can be compared across cont ext s. The Lebanese mulet eers engaging in bandit ry and

organizing revolt have an echo in t he horseman and mule driver Emiliano Zapat a. They

have an echo in t he Balkan confines of t he Ot t oman Empire in t he Hajduks; and t hey have

an echo in t he horseman M ehmed, t he hero of Ya

ş

novels. Furt her away, in

Indian Berar, t he Banjara ox- cart drivers engaged in smuggling were hailed by t he

peasant ry as social bandit s; and in China, t he rickshaw pullers t ook t he leading role in

mobilizing for revolt .73_{The t ransit ion t o capit alism unfolded very different ly in all t hese}

cont ext s. Land reform in Indian Berar, for instance, meant a swift equalizat ion and

homogenizat ion in land t enure, and a brut al t ransfer of power from local elit es t o t he

colonial government .74_{In t he Ot t oman Empire, t he reforms int ended t o unify pract ice were}

negot iat ed at t he level of t he dist rict and in every village bet ween represent at ives of t he

cent ral administ rat ion, a regional elit e, and act ors in product ive syst ems on t he ground,

who shaped different out comes in different local polit ical economies.75_{In some areas,}

peasant s became small landowners. In ot hers, t hey t urned int o t enant s t o t ribal leaders

and t ownsmen on lands t hey had formerly cultivat ed for t heir own.76_{Despit e t hese}

differences in t he est ablishment of a wide variet y of propert y- right regimes, t he repert oire

of act ions developed by peasant societ ies at t his hist orical junct ure remains very similar.

The implicat ion is t hat despit e t he differences in t he t ransit ion t o capit alism, t his moment

of hist ory can st ill be apprehended in t erms of a unique dynamic operat ing on a global

scale economic pressures, which t hese agent s, by t he nat ure of t heir t rade, perceived and

act ed on ahead of ot hers.

73 _{SATYA, Laxman D.}

Op. Cit ., p. 253, 256, 271. STRAND, David. Op. Cit ., p. 21, 23.

Op. Cit ., p. 55- 63, 84- 5.

75_{M UNDI, M art ha; SAUM AREZ Richard.}

Op. Cit ., p. 3, 7.

76_{FIRRO, Kais. Silk and Agrarian Changes in Lebanon, 1860- 1914.}

Int ernat ional Journal of M iddle East St udies

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A hist ory of t he mulet eers brings mat erial condit ions back in wit hout , however,

denying t he principal role of cult ure in shaping agency. A journey int o t he everyday world

of t hese nameless individuals can focus t he complex int ersect ions bet ween t he polit

ical-cult ural hist ory of confessional ident it ies and t he socio- economic t ransformat ions

at t ending int egrat ion int o t he global market . It st rives t owards t he hist ory E. P. Thompson

77_{And from t his vant age point , social and}

cult ural hist ory on a small scale can cross over int o global hist ory.

Dat a de recebiment o do art igo: 26/08/2016

Data de aprovação do artigo: 23/10/2016

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