Roots of death: origins of human burial and the research on Early Holocene mortuary practices in the Iberian Peninsula

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(1)TAGUNGEN DES LANDESMUSEUMS FÜR VORGESCHICHTE HALLE. Mesolithic burials – Rites, symbols and social organisation of early postglacial communities. I S B N 978 - 3 - 9 4 4 5 07- 4 3 - 9 I S S N 18 6 7- 4 4 0 2. TB_Mesolithikum_II.indd 1. 13/II. Mesolithic burials – Rites, symbols and social organisation of early postglacial communities Mesolithische Bestattungen – Riten, Symbole und soziale Organisation früher postglazialer Gemeinschaften International Conference Halle (Saale), Germany, 18th–21st September 2o13 Edited by Judith M. Grünberg, Bernhard Gramsch, Lars Larsson, Jörg Orschiedt and Harald Meller. 13/II. 2016. TAGUNGEN DES L ANDESMUSEUMS FÜR VORGESCHICHTE HALLE. 22.02.17 14:51.

(2) Tagungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle Band 13/II | 2016. Mesolithic burials – Rites, symbols and social organisation of early postglacial communities Mesolithische Bestattungen – Riten, Symbole und soziale Organisation früher postglazialer Gemeinschaften International Conference Halle (Saale), Germany, 18th–21st September 2o13 Internationale Konferenz Halle (Saale), Deutschland, 18.–21. September 2o13.

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(4) Tagungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle Band 13/II | 2016. Mesolithic burials – Rites, symbols and social organisation of early postglacial communities Mesolithische Bestattungen – Riten, Symbole und soziale Organisation früher postglazialer Gemeinschaften International Conference Halle (Saale), Germany, 18th–21st September 2o13 Internationale Konferenz Halle (Saale), Deutschland, 18.–21. September 2o13. Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt. landesmuseum für vorgeschichte. Edited by Judith M. Grünberg, Bernhard Gramsch, Lars Larsson, Jörg Orschiedt and Harald Meller Halle (Saale) 2o16.

(5) With many thanks to our sponsors:. Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über https://portal.dnb.de abrufbar.. issn 2194-9441 isbn 978-3-9445o7-43-9. Koordination Judith M. Grünberg • Halle (Saale) Wissenschaftliche Redaktion Judith M. Grünberg • Halle (Saale), Bernhard Gramsch • Potsdam Englisches Lektorat. A lison Wilson • Cambridge, UK. Deutsche Zusammenfassungen der Beiträge von Nicht-Muttersprachlern Judith M. Grünberg • Halle (Saale), Bernhard Gramsch • Potsdam Übersetzung englischer Texte (22, 27). A lison Wilson, Gerda T. Mamott • beide Cambridge, UK. Technische Bearbeitung Judith M. Grünberg, Alexander Häusler, Ingeborg Meiling, Brigitte Parsche, Rosel Reichelt, Wolfgang Reichelt, Monika Weinhold • Halle (Saale), Bernhard Gramsch • Potsdam, Juliane Weiss • Jena Bildbearbeitung, Satz MEDIEN PROFIS GmbH, Grafische Produktionen • Leipzig, Mario Wiegmann • Halle (Saale). Für den Inhalt der Arbeiten sind die Autoren eigenverantwortlich.. © by Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt – Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle (Saale). Das Werk einschließlich aller seiner Teile ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Jede Verwertung außerhalb der engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes ist ohne Zustimmung des Landesamtes für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt unzulässig. Dies gilt insbesondere für Vervielfältigungen, Übersetzungen, Mikroverfilmu ngen sowie die Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in elektronischen Systemen.. Papier alterungsbeständig nach din/iso 97o6 Satzschrift FF Celeste, News Gothic Gestaltungskonzept Umschlaggestaltung Layout, Satz und Produktion Druck und Bindung . Carolyn Steinbeck • Berlin Louis D. Nebelsick, Brigitte Parsche • Halle (Saale) MEDIEN PROFIS GmbH, Grafische Produktionen • Leipzig Salzland Druck GmbH & Co. KG • Staßfurt. Cover image: Grave goods from the Mesolithic burial of Bad Dürrenberg (Saxony-Anhalt, Germany). Photography: Andrea Hörentrup • Halle (Saale), design: Brigitte Parsche • Halle (Saale).

(6) Inhalt / Contents. Band I. 11 Preface of the editors. 13 Judith M. Grünberg. Mesolithic burials – Rites, symbols and social organisation of early postglacial communities. 25 Christopher Meiklejohn, Jeff Babb and Weldon Hiebert. A chrono-geographic look at Mesolithic burials: an initial study Eine chronologisch-geographische Sicht auf mesolithische Bestattungen: Eine erste Studie. 47 Erik Brinch Petersen. Afterlife in the Danish Mesolithic – the creation, use and discarding of »Loose Human Bones« Nachleben im Mesolithikum Dänemarks – Entstehung, Nutzung und Wegwerfen »loser menschlicher Knochen«. 63 Søren A. Sørensen. Loose human bones from the Danish Mesolithic Lose menschliche Knochen aus dem Dänischen Mesolithikum. 73 Berit V. Eriksen and Hans Chr. H. Andersen. Hammelev. An Early Mesolithic cremation grave from Southern Jutland, Denmark Hammelev. Eine frühmesolithische Brandbestattung aus Südjütland, Dänemark. 81 Esben Kannegaard. Late Mesolithic ochre graves at Nederst, Denmark: ochre rituals and customs of personal adornment Spätmesolithische Ockergräber bei Nederst, Dänemark: Ockerrituale und Bräuche des persönlichen Schmucks. 95 Ole Lass Jensen. Double burials and cremations from the Late Mesolithic site of Nivå 1o, Eastern Denmark Doppel- und Brandbestattungen vom spätmesolithischen Fundplatz Nivå 1o, Ostdänemark. 109 Peter Vang Petersen. Papooses in the Mesolithic? A reinterpretation of tooth and snail shell ornaments found in grave 8 at Bøgebakken and other Mesolithic burials »Papooses« im Mesolithikum? Eine Neuinterpretation von Verzierungen mit Zähnen und Schneckengehäusen, gefunden im Grab 8 bei Bøgebakken und in anderen mesolithischen Bestattungen. 125 Karl-Göran Sjögren and Torbjörn Ahlström. Early Mesolithic burials from Bohuslän, western Sweden Frühmesolithische Gräber von Bohuslän, Westschweden. 145 Sara Gummesson and Fredrik Molin. The Mesolithic cemetery at Strandvägen, Motala, in eastern central Sweden Das mesolithische Gräberfeld bei Strandvägen, Motala, im östlichen Mittelschweden. 161 Fredrik Hallgren and Elin Fornander. Skulls on stakes and skulls in water. Mesolithic mortuary rituals at Kanaljorden, Motala, Sweden 7ooo BP Schädel auf Pfählen und Schädel im Wasser. Mesolithische Bestattungsriten bei Kanaljorden, Motala, Schweden 7ooo BP.

(7) . 175 Lars Larsson. Some aspects of mortuary practices at the Late Mesolithic cemeteries at Skateholm, southernmost Sweden Einige Aspekte der Bestattungssitten auf den spätmesolithischen Friedhöfen bei Skateholm, im südlichsten Teil Schwedens. 185 Marja Ahola. Re-thinking the Stone Age burial ground of Jönsas, Southern Finland Überdenken des steinzeitlichen Gräberfeldes von Jönsas, Südfinnland. 193 Adomas Butrimas. Biržulis lake islands Donkalnis and Spiginas Mesolithic cemeteries (West Lithuania) Mesolithische Gräberfelder auf den Inseln Donkalnis und Spiginas im Biržulis See (Westlitauen). 219 Rimantas Jankauskas, Žydru ¯ne˙ Miliauskiene˙ and Mantas Daubaras. Skeletal markers of activities and social status in Lithuanian and Latvian Mesolithic-Neolithic population Markierungen von Tätigkeiten am Skelett und sozialer Status in der mesolithisch-neolithischen Bevölkerung Litauens und Lettlands. 225 Ilga Zagorska. Mesolithic burial traditions in Latvia. A case study from Zvejnieki burial ground Mesolithische Bestattungstraditionen in Lettland. Eine Fallstudie vom Gräberfeld Zvejnieki. 241 Harald Lübke, Ute Brinker, John Meadows, Valdis Be¯rzin ¸š and Ilga Zagorska. New research on the human burials of Rin‚n‚ukalns, Latvia Neue Forschung an den menschlichen Bestattungen von Rin‚n‚ukalns, Lettland. 257 Judith M. Grünberg. The Mesolithic burials of the Middle Elbe-Saale region Die mesolithischen Bestattungen im Mittelelbe-Saale-Gebiet. 291 Judith M. Grünberg, Heribert A. Graetsch, Karl-Uwe Heußner and Karla Schneider. Analyses of Mesolithic grave goods from upright seated individuals in Central Germany Analysen der mesolithischen Grabbeigaben von den aufrecht sitzenden Individuen in Mitteldeutschland. 329 Marcus Stecher, Judith M. Grünberg and Kurt W. Alt. Bioarchaeology of the Mesolithic individuals from Bottendorf (Thuringia, Germany) Bioarchäologie der mesolithischen Individuen von Bottendorf (Thüringen, Deutschland). 345 Mario Küßner and Torsten Schunke. A Mesolithic cremation burial and a hazelnut roasting site in Coswig, Wittenberg District, Central Germany Eine mesolithische Brandbestattung und ein Haselnussröstplatz in Coswig, Lkr. Wittenberg, Mitteldeutschland. 359 Mario Küßner. Mesolithic burials and loose human bones on the northern edge of the Thuringian mountains in Central Germany Mesolithische Bestattungen und einzelne menschliche Knochen am Nordrand der Thüringer Gebirge in Mitteldeutschland. 373 Jörg Orschiedt and Claus-Joachim Kind. Mesolithic human remains from Southern Germany Mesolithische Menschenreste aus Süddeutschland. 385 Bernhard Gramsch. The Mesolithic burials of North-Eastern Germany – synopsis and new aspects Die mesolithischen Gräber im Nordosten Deutschlands – Synopsis und neue Aspekte. 401 Maha Ismail-Weber. A burial on the edge of the Oderbruch Eine Bestattung am Rand des Oderbruchs.

(8) . 419 Bettina Jungklaus, Andreas Kotula and Thomas Terberger. New investigations into the Mesolithic burial of Groß Fredenwalde, Brandenburg – first results Neue Untersuchungen am mesolithischen Grab von Groß Fredenwalde, Brandenburg – erste Resultate. 435 Stefan Pratsch. The old woman from Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Die alte Frau aus Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Band II. 439 Zofia Sulgostowska. New data concerning Mesolithic burials in Polish territory Neue Daten zu mesolithischen Bestattungen auf dem Gebiet Polens. 457 Łukasz Maurycy Stanaszek and Hanna Man´kowska-Pliszka. A new osteological analysis of Janisławice Man Eine neue osteologische Analyse des Mannes von Janisławice. 465 Witold Gumin´ski and Karolina Bugajska. Exception as a rule. Unusual Mesolithic cemetery and other graves at Dudka and Szczepanki, Masuria, NE-Poland Die Ausnahme als Regel. Ungewöhnlicher mesolithischer Friedhof und andere Gräber bei Dudka und Szczepanki, Masuren, NO-Polen. 511 Karolina Bugajska and Witold Gumin´ski How many steps to heaven? Loose human bones and secondary burials at Dudka and Szczepanki, the Stone Age foragers’ sites in Masuria, NE-Poland Wie viele Stufen zum Himmel? Einzelne menschliche Knochen und Sekundärbestattungen bei Dudka und Szczepanki, den steinzeitlichen Wildbeuterfundstellen in Masuren, NO-Polen. 545 Emily Hellewell and Nicky Milner. Analyses of the placement of disarticulated human remains in Stone Age shell middens in Europe Analysen zur Platzierung von disartikulierten menschlichen Resten in steinzeitlichen Molluskenhaufen in Europa. 555 Rick J. Schulting. Holes in the world: the use of caves for burial in the Mesolithic Löcher in der Welt: Die Nutzung von Höhlen für Bestattungen im Mesolithikum. 569 Marcel J.L.Th. Niekus, Patrick H.J.I. Ploegaert, Jørn T. Zeiler and Liesbeth Smits. A small Middle Mesolithic cemetery with cremation burials from Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Ein kleiner mittelmesolithischer Friedhof mit Brandbestattungen von Rotterdam, Niederlande. 593 Leendert Louwe Kooijmans, Tom Hamburg and Liesbeth Smits. Burial and non-burial at Late Mesolithic Hardinxveld (NL) Bestattung und Nicht-Bestattung beim spätmesolithischen Hardinxveld (NL). 609 Éva David. The bone pins from Téviec (Morbihan, France) illuminate Mesolithic social organisation. Knochenpfrieme aus Téviec (Morbihan, Frankreich) beleuchten die soziale Organisation im Mesolithikum. 629 Rita Peyroteo Stjerna. Roots of death: origins of human burial and the research on Early Holocene mortuary practices in the Iberian Peninsula Wurzeln des Todes: Ursprünge der menschlichen Bestattung und die Erforschung frühholozäner Bestattungs sitten auf der Iberischen Halbinsel.

(9) . 645 Mary Jackes and David Lubell. Muge Mesolithic burials, a synthesis on mortuary archaeology Die mesolithischen Bestattungen von Muge, eine Synthese zur Gräberarchäologie. 673 Olívia Figueiredo, Cláudia Umbelino and Nuno Bicho. Mortuary variability at Moita do Sebastião & Cabeço da Amoreira (Muge, central Portugal) Variabilität in den Bestattungen bei Moita do Sebastião & Cabeço da Amoreira (Muge, Mittelportugal). 683 Cláudia Umbelino, Célia Gonçalves, Olívia Figueiredo, Telmo Pereira, João Cascalheira, João Marreiros and Nuno Bicho. Human burials in the Mesolithic of Muge and the origins of social differentiation: the case of Cabeço da Amoreira, Portugal Menschliche Bestattungen im Mesolithikum von Muge und die Ursprünge der sozialen Differenzierung: Der Fall vom Cabeço da Amoreira, Portugal. 693 Pablo Arias. Grave goods in the Mesolithic of southern Europe: an overview Grabbeigaben im Mesolithikum Südeuropas: Ein Überblick. 705 Xavier Terradas, Juan F. Gibaja, Maria Eulàlia Subirà, F. Javier Santos, Lidia Agulló, Isabel Gómez-Martínez, Florence Allièse, Javier Fernández-López de Pablo, Eva Fernández, Cristina Gamba, Eduardo Arroyo and José Aparicio. The Mesolithic cemetery of El Collado. State of the art and new results. Der mesolithische Friedhof von El Collado. Neuester Stand und neue Resultate. 719 Patrice Courtaud, Hans C. Petersen, Aurélie Zemour, Franck Leandri and Joseph Cesari. The Mesolithic burial of Campu Stefanu (Corsica, France) Das mesolithische Grab von Campu Stefanu (Korsika, Frankreich). 733 Rita T. Melis and Margherita Mussi. Mesolithic burials at S’Omu e S’Orku (SOMK) on the south-western coast of Sardinia Die mesolithischen Bestattungen bei S’Omu e S’Orku (SOMK) an der südwestlichen Küste von Sardinien. 741 Federica Fontana, Antonio Guerreschi, Stefano Bertola, François Briois and Sara Ziggiotti. The Castelnovian burial of Mondeval de Sora (San Vito di Cadore, Belluno, Italy): evidence for changes in the social organisation of Late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers in north-eastern Italy Das Castelnovien Grab von Mondeval de Sora (San Vito di Cadore, Belluno, Italien): Belege für Änderungen in der sozialen Organisation bei spätmesolithischen Jäger-Sammlern im nordöstlichen Italien. 757 Adina Boroneant¸ and Clive Bonsall. The Icoana burials in context Die Icoana-Bestattungen im Kontext. 781 Kristiina Mannermaa. Good to eat and good to think? Evidence of the consumption of ospreys (Pandion haliaetus) and white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) in the Late Mesolithic at Yuzhniy Oleniy Ostrov, NW Russia Gut zu essen und gut zu denken? Hinweise auf den Verzehr von Fischadlern (Pandion haliaetus) und Seeadlern (Haliaeetus albicilla) im Spätmesolithikum auf der südlichen Hirschinsel [Olenij Ostrov], NW Russland. 793 Svetlana V. Oshibkina. Funeral rituals of the population of the Eastern Lake Onega region (based on materials from Popovo and Peschanitsa cemeteries) Bestattungsriten der Bevölkerung in der Region am östlichen Onega-See (nach dem Material der Friedhöfe von Popovo und Peschanitsa). 809 Jörg Orschiedt. Bodies, bits and pieces II: the Late Palaeolithic and Early Mesolithic burial practices in Europe Körper und Einzelteile II: Bestattungspraktiken im Spätpaläolithikum und Frühmesolithikum Europas.

(10) . 827 Birgit Gehlen. No future? No past? Mesolithic heritage in Neolithic burials Ohne Zukunft? Ohne Vergangenheit? Mesolithisches Erbe in neolithischen Bestattungen. 851 Johan Jelsma. Subsistence and status at Port au Choix, Newfoundland, Canada: Maritime Archaic Indian mortuary practices and social structure Ernährung und Status bei Port au Choix, Neufundland, Kanada: Bestattungssitten und Sozialstrukturen der Indianer des maritimen Archaikums. 865 Glen H. Doran and Geoffrey P. Thomas. Windover: an overview Windover: Ein Überblick. 885 Ruth Struwe. Ethnological records of Australia’s sub-recent indigenes – their treatment of corpses before final disposal Über die Totenbehandlung vor einer abschließenden Beisetzung nach ethnologischen Quellen zu subrezenten Ureinwohnern Australiens. 903 Lars Larsson. Final comments. 909 Programme of the international conference on »Mesolithic burials – Rites, symbols and social organisation. of early postglacial communities«, Halle (Saale), 18th–21st September 2013.

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(12) Roots of death: origins of human burial and the research on Early Holocene mortuary practices in the Iberian Peninsula Rita Peyroteo Stjerna. Zusammenfassung. Summary. Wurzeln des Todes: Ursprünge der menschlichen Bestattung und die Erforschung frühholozäner Bestattungssitten auf der Iberischen Halbinsel. In the context of postglacial environmental changes, the new form of settlement known to exist in the Late Mesolithic seems to be followed by a different relationship to death. In the archaeological record, this is well observed in the shell midden sites known in both the Tagus and Sado valleys in Portugal, with c. 376 human burials of both sexes and ages, mostly individual primary depositions. This concentration of human remains and the regular practice of funerary burial are in apparent contrast with the archaeological record for previous phases, at least in the Iberian Peninsula. Here, I present a review of the archaeological data available for the mortuary practices of the Early Holocene, i.e. Early Mesolithic, in the Iberian Peninsula, prior to these Late Mesolithic cemeteries in the Tagus and Sado valleys, and attempt to trace back in time the possible origins of this behaviour in the hunter-gatherer mortuary tradition.. Im Zuge der nacheiszeitlichen Umweltveränderungen folgte anscheinend mit der für das Spätmesolithikum bekannten neuen Siedlungsweise auch ein anderes Verhältnis zum Tod. Im archäologischen Befund ist dies gut an den Muschelhaufenfundstellen festzustellen, die sowohl im Tejo- als auch im Sado-Tal in Portugal mit insgesamt ca. 376 menschlichen Bestattungen beiderlei Geschlechts und verschiedenen Altersgruppen bekannt sind. Es sind mehrheitlich primäre Körperbestattungen mit einem Individuum. Diese Konzentration von menschlichen Überresten und die jetzt regelmäßig praktizierten Bestattungen stehen offenbar im Gegensatz zu den archäologischen Zeugnissen aus den vorherigen Phasen, zumindest auf der Iberischen Halbinsel. Hier präsentiere ich einen Überblick über die vorhandenen archäologischen Daten zu den Bestattungssitten des frühen Holozäns, d.h. des frühen Mesolithikums auf der Iberischen Halbinsel vor den spätmesolithischen Gräberfeldern im Tejound Sado-Tal. Es wird versucht, die möglichen Ursprünge dieses Verhaltens in den Jäger-Sammler-Bestattungstraditionen zeitlich zurückzuverfolgen.. Introduction The history of death is entangled with the history of changing social values, as shown by anthropological and sociological research, as well as by philosophical and theological approaches to death studies. In this view, the shift in the meaning of death, i.e. death’s paradigm shift, will be consistent with the changes of world-view of a given society (Davies 2oo5), and potentially given material form in the archaeological record. In the context of postglacial environmental changes, the new form of settlement in the Late Mesolithic seems to occur with a different relationship to death. In the archaeological record, this is well documented in the Late Mesolithic shell midden sites known in both the Tagus and Sado valleys in Portugal (Fig. 1), with at least 376 human burials of both sexes and various ages, mostly individual primary depositions (Arnaud 1989; Bicho et al. 2o13; Cunha/Cardoso 2oo1; 2oo3; Cunha/Umbelino 1997; Jackes/Meiklejohn 2oo8; Meiklejohn et al. 2oo9; Roksandic´ 2oo6; Diniz et al. 2o14; Peyroteo Stjerna 2o16). This form of settlement, with the formation of large shell middens clustered by the margins Ta g u n g e n d e s L a n d e s m u s e u m s f ü r V o r g e s c h i c h t e H a ll e • B a n d 13 • 2 016. of these newly formed estuaries at the Tagus and Sado rivers (see for e.g. Arnaud 1989; Araújo 2oo3), is unique in the Iberian Peninsula. The concentration of human remains and the regular practice of funerary burial are also in apparent contrast to the archaeological record for previous phases and contemporaneous sites in the Peninsula. The aim of this study is to review the archaeological data available for the mortuary practices of the earliest stages of the Holocene, i.e. Early Mesolithic, in the Iberian Peninsula, prior to these Late Mesolithic cemeteries in the Tagus and Sado valleys, and attempt to trace back in time the possible origins of this behaviour in the mortuary tradition. The data collected for the time span of more than three millennia (c. 11 65o –8ooo cal BP) shows evidence for the manipulation of human remains, but the practice of funerary burial was very rare. The data also suggests that mortuary practices vary regionally and discontinuously. Thus, I suggest that the origins of the mortuary behaviour known for the last hunter-gatherers of the Tagus and Sado valleys cannot be explained by demic or cultural diffusion; rather, its origins are local, related to regional constraints and intrinsic to the social dynamics of these groups. This suggestion.

(13) 630. R i ta P e y r o t e o S tj er n a. Fig. 1 Map of the Iberian Peninsula with the archaeological sites discussed in the text. Sites sorted geographically and chronologically and placed schematically on the map: 1 Los Azules; 2 Tito Bustillo; 3 Cuartamentero; 4 Poza l’Egua; 5 Mazaculos II; 6 Los Canes; 7 J3; 8 Balma Guilanyà; 9 Abric Agut; 1o Casal Papagaio; 11 Toledo; 12 Pinhal da Fonte; 13 El Collado; 14 Santa Maira; 15 Penya del Comptador; 16 Vale Boi.. has never been addressed in a systematic manner examining death as the point of departure for the analysis of social change. The topic of changing attitudes towards death is a rich avenue of research, as it parallels the history of human relationships (Davies 2oo5, 28) and, from this perspective, observing death is to observe change and continuity in human societies.. Material and methods The chronological scope of this study ranges from the beginning of the Holocene, c. 11 65o cal BP (Walker et al. 2oo9), to the earliest burials known in the Tagus and Sado valleys, c. 83oo–8ooo cal BP (Lubell/Jackes 1985; 1988; Meiklejohn et al. 1986; Cunha/Umbelino 2oo1; Cunha et al. 2oo3; Roksandic´ 2oo6; Peyroteo Stjerna 2o16). This time period will be further referred to as Early Mesolithic, and the immediate subsequent time period as Late Mesolithic. The geographical area in focus is the Iberian Peninsula (Portugal and Spain), a wide area (c. 58o ooo km 2) with a varied climate, geography and geology, in the borderline between the Atlantic ocean and the Mediterranean sea. This variability is an impor-. tant factor in settlement patterns and in the outcome of the archaeological record. The material used for this study is based on current published data. I have considered all archaeological sites with human remains previously described in the literature published in English, Portuguese and Spanish, in this chronological scope and within this geographical area. Some sites cited in the literature were excluded from this analysis for lack of evidence and/or for the ambiguous character of the data confirming the chronological context of the human remains. This review was intended to be as complete as possible; acknowledging that archaeological databases are intrinsically fragmentary. Following the aims of this study, this research is focused on the act of human burial as a form of funerary behaviour, and for this reason some preliminary observations should be made. The first observation concerns the different contexts where human remains can be found. The presence of human remains in a site is not necessarily correlated with funerary practice. Human remains can be employed in a variety of cultural contexts. Human remains can be worn as ornaments, as well as amulets and relics; can be involved in an Ta g u n g e n d e s L a n d e s m u s e u m s f ü r V o r g e s c h i c h t e H a ll e • B a n d 13 • 2 016.

(14) R o o t s o f d e at h : o r i g i n s o f h u m a n b u r i a l a n d t h e r e s e a r c h o n E a r ly H o l o c e n e m o r t u a r y p r a c t i c e s i n t h e Ib e r i a n P e n i n s u l a. Fig. 2 Number of sites (46) with human remains of Early (13) and Late (24) Mesolithic chronology, Iberian Peninsula. Sites of unclear context (9) are currently considered Mesolithic but the chronology of the human remains is not well established (see Results section).. 30 25 24 20 15 13. 10. 9 5 0. before c. 8000 cal BP. array of ancestors and religious rituals, as well as in demonstrations of power; can be found in scenarios of violence and conflict, as well as in accidental contexts of death; the list goes on. The funerary context is just one of the many contexts where human remains can be present. The intentionality of the actions should be demonstrated (Duday 2oo9), however, because of the complexity inherent in the interpretation of these behaviours in archaeological contexts, I have decided to include in this study all sites with human remains, whether in a clear funerary context or possibly related to other acts. A second preliminary observation is that burial, also further referred to as inhumation, is just one of many possible funerary options in the complex diversity of human funerary behaviour. Also, the act of burial is frequently just one part of the various episodes involved in the funerary practice. Burial is however one practice that is preserved rather well in the archaeological record, hence the traditional interpretative focus on this practice, often ignoring other variables. As discussed above, regarding the context of occurrence of human remains, a buried corpse is not necessarily correlated with a funerary practice either. Human bodies can be buried in contexts of violence and conflict, as well as in accidental contexts of death, just to name some examples. Following these preliminary observations, caution and an evidence-based approach is essential when interpreting the presence of human remains in archaeological contexts. Thus, this study covers all the archaeological sites with reported human remains in the Iberian Peninsula, from the first three stages of the Holocene: Preboreal, Boreal and very early Atlantic (c. 11 65o –8ooo cal BP), i.e. Early Mesolithic. All radiocarbon dates cited in this text were calibrated (cal BP) at 95.4 % confidence intervals. For laboratory radiocarbon determinations, reservoir effects and references refer to Table 1.. Results Two recent major works (Araújo 2o12; Gallego Lletjós 2o13) have informed the results of the present study. Both are PhD theses and follow very rigorous criteria when defining or rejecting the Mesolithic character of a site. There are, however, Ta g u n g e n d e s L a n d e s m u s e u m s f ü r V o r g e s c h i c h t e H a ll e • B a n d 13 • 2 016. after c. 8000 cal BP. unclear context. some discrepancies in the results and these are mainly related to availability of, and access to, data. Gallegos’s thesis (2o13) on the Iberian Mesolithic confirms the Mesolithic chronology of 195 sites out of 469 initially considered. However, five sites discussed in Araújo’s thesis (2o12) on the Early Mesolithic in Portugal are not included in Gallegos’s inventory (Cabeço do Curral Velho, Oliveirinha 1, Pena de Mira, Pinhal da Fonte and Vale de Sá). Also, two sites considered Mesolithic by Gallego Lletjós (2o13) are rejected by Araújo (2o12) in a detailed and well-argued analysis (Fonte Pinheiro and Cabeço de Porto Marinho). Based on these studies I have reached a total of 198 sites that can be considered to be of Early and Late Mesolithic chronology in the Iberian Peninsula. Of these almost 2oo sites, Gallego Lletjós (2o13) has identified 44 sites with human remains. However, the Mesolithic chronology of the human remains in nine of these sites is not well established (Abrigo Grande das Bocas, Balmori, Bauma del Serrat del Pont, Cingle Vermell, Kobeaga II, Mas Gelat, Molino de Gasparín, Santimamiñe and Tossal de la Roca). Also, two sites that I will discuss in this study (Abric Agut and Pinhal da Fonte) were not included in Gallegos’s list (2o13). Thus, at the moment we can consider 37 sites with Mesolithic human remains and possibly nine other sites that need further research (Tab. 2; Fig. 2). In the current study, these numbers should be considered as estimates for working reference, as new data, new analyses and different criteria may challenge some of these interpretations currently based on very modest evidence.. Iberian Peninsula: Portugal In Portugal, I have identified three Early Mesolithic sites with human remains. The human remains in these sites are fragmented and disarticulated bones in unknown association with other features. Casal Papagaio (Cave with shell midden layers, Ourém/Ribatejo; Fig. 1,10). The human remains recovered from this site are the fragments of at least two crania and various loose teeth. This material corresponds to at least two individuals, one of. 631.

(15) Sample. Charcoal. Charcoal. Tooth, H. sapiens. Cranium, H. sapiens. Mandible, H. sapiens. Mandible, H. sapiens. Bone, H. sapiens, Burial 3-child. Bone, H. sapiens. Bone, H. sapiens, Burial I. Bone, H. sapiens. Tooth, H. sapiens. Charcoal. Charcoal. Charcoal. Charcoal. Charcoal. Shells (*). Charcoal (*). Shells, C. edule. Site. Los Azules (ES). Los Azules (ES). Tito Bustillo (ES). Cuartamentero (ES). Poza l‘Egua (ES). Mazaculos II (ES). Los Canes (ES). Los Canes (ES). J3 (ES). Balma Guilanyà (ES). Balma Guilanyà (ES). Abric Agut (ES). Abric Agut (ES). Abric Agut (ES). Abric Agut (ES). Abric Agut (ES). Casal Papagaio (PT). Casal Papagaio (PT). Casal Papagaio (PT). middle. unknown. unknown. 4–7c. 4–7c. 4–7c. 4–7a. 4–7a. E. E. D, bottom. 2C. 6-III. disturbed. 2. disturbed. n/p. 3d. 3a. Layer. ICEN-372. Hv-1351(*). Hv-1351(*). OxA-10050. OxA-10074. OxA-10051. OxA-10064. OxA-10049. Ua-34297. Ua-34298. GrA-23733. AA-18020. TO-11218. OxA-18237. TO-10222. n/p. Beta-197042. CSIC-260. CSIC-216. Lab. no.. 9650 ±,90. 8870 ±,105. 8870 ±,105. 10 085 ±,60. 10 060 ±,65. 9895 ±,60. 9660 ±,110. 9185 ±,60. 11 095 ±,195. 10 195 ±,255. 8300 ±,50. 13 009 ±,105. 7640 ±,210. 7840 ±,40. 8550 ±,80. 8395 ±,40. 8470 ±,50. 9540 ±,120. 9430 ±,120. Radiocarbon age (BP). 10 637–10 211. 10 225–9629. 9686–9157. 11 975–11 354. 11 957–11 309. 11 603–11 202. 11 249–10 698. 10 505–10 235. 13 333–12 682. 12 630–11 212. 9440–9133. 15 912–15 236. 8996–8036. 8765–8542. 9731–9409. 9495–9303. 9542–9421. 11 201–10 560. 11 134–10 300. Calibrated date BP (95% confidence). Arnaud/Bento 1988. Monge Soares 2008. Arnaud/Bento 1988. Vaquero et al. 2002. Vaquero et al. 2002. Vaquero et al. 2002. Vaquero et al. 2002. Vaquero et al. 2002. Garcia-Guixé et al. 2009. Garcia-Guixé et al. 2009. Arias 2005; Iriarte et al. 2005. Arias 2005. Arias 2005. Drak/Garralda 2009. Arias 2005. Drak/Garralda 2009. Arias et al. 2009. Fernández-Tresguerres 1976. Fernández-Tresguerres 1976. Reference. 632 R i ta P e y r o t e o S tj er n a. Ta g u n g e n d e s L a n d e s m u s e u m s f ü r V o r g e s c h i c h t e H a ll e • B a n d 13 • 2 016.

(16) Ta g u n g e n d e s L a n d e s m u s e u m s f ü r V o r g e s c h i c h t e H a ll e • B a n d 13 • 2 016. Shells, C. edule. Shells, C. edule. Shells, C. edule. Shells, C. edule. Bone, H. sapiens, Burial XIII. Bone, H. sapiens, Burial XIII. Bone, H. sapiens, Burial VI. Bone, H. sapiens, Burial IV. Bone (W 3–18), H. sapiens. Bone, H. sapiens. Tooth, H. sapiens. Toledo (PT). Toledo (PT). Toledo (PT). Pinhal da Fonte (PT). El Collado (ES). El Collado (ES). El Collado (ES). El Collado (ES). Santa Maira (ES). Penya del Comptador (ES). Vale Boi (PT). 2, bottom. n/p. 3. 3. 3. 2. 2. 20–30. B12. D21. B12. bottom. TO-12197. Beta-156025. Beta-244010. UBAR-927. UBAR-928. UBAR-281. UBAR-280. Sac-1671. Sac-1529. Sac-1533. Sac-1587. ICEN-369. 7500 ±,90. 8570 ±,40. 8690 ±,50. 8690 ±,100. 8080 ±,60. 7640 ±,120. 7570 ±,160. 8740 ±,70. 9200 ±,70. 9120 ±,80. 9000 ±,60. 9710 ±,70. 8380–8004. 9600–9483. 9885–9540. 10 134–9498. 9247–8756. 8717–8180. 8765–8014. 9465–9109. 10 113–9604. 10 014–9510. 9735–9439. 11 247–10 787. Carvalho et al. 2008. Aura Tortosa et al. 2006. Aura Tortosa et al. 2010. Aparicio Pérez 2008. Aparicio Pérez 2008. Aparicio Pérez 2008. Aparicio Pérez 2008. Araújo 2012. Araújo 2011. Araújo 2011. Araújo 2011. Arnaud/Bento 1988. (*) The sample Hv-1351 has been described either as a sample of shells (Arnaud/Bento 1988) or as charcoal (Monge Soares 2oo8). The earliest publication of this measurement (Kalb 1981) does not describe the nature of the sample.. Tab. 1 List of radiocarbon dates discussed in the text. Sites sorted geographically and chronologically, according to Figure 1. Note: Samples were calibrated through OxCal v4.2 (Bronk Ramsey 2oo9) using IntCal13 curve (Reimer et al. 2o13) for terrestrial samples. Marine samples and human samples with mixed diet were calibrated using Marine13 curve (Reimer et al. 2o13) and regional ΔR accordingly. Casal Papagaio, Pinhal da Fonte and Toledo: shells, marine 1oo %/ ΔR = 95 ± 15 14 C yr BP (Monge Soares, pers. comm.). J3 and Poza l’Egua: marine 48 % (δ13C = –16.7 ‰)/ ΔR = 21o 14 C yr BP (Arias 2oo5; Arias et al. 2oo9). El Collado, burial XIII – marine 34 % (δ13C = –18.1 ‰), burial VI – marine 33 % (δ13C = –18.2 ‰), burial IV – marine 39 % (δ13C = –18.7 ‰)/ ΔR = 94 ± 61 14 C yr BP (Gibaja et al. 2o15). Vale Boi: marine 28 % (δ13C = –18.7 ‰)/ ΔR = 95 ± 15 14 C yr BP (Monge Soares, pers. comm.). Marine diets (± 1o %) were calculated following Ambrose (1993) using assumed marine and terrestrial endpoints of –12 and –21 ‰ respectively (Schulting/Richards 2oo1).. Charcoal. Casal Papagaio (PT). R o o t s o f d e at h : o r i g i n s o f h u m a n b u r i a l a n d t h e r e s e a r c h o n E a r ly H o l o c e n e m o r t u a r y p r a c t i c e s i n t h e Ib e r i a n P e n i n s u l a. 633.

(17) 634. R i ta P e y r o t e o S tj er n a. whom has been identified as a young adult (Arnaud/Bento 1988, 32). There are also some perforated shells of Theodoxus fluviatilis, but their possible association with the human remains is unknown. The only campaign reported at this cave was a rescue excavation in 1988. Arnaud and Bento (1988, 33) have confirmed that this was the same site as a cave briefly mentioned in the 197os. Despite the unclear data from these first reports, this site has been previously described as a cave with a shell midden, human bones, and a lithic industry similar to the Muge material (Veiga Ferreira/Leitão 1981; Zbyszewski et al. 1974). The published context of the human remains is not very clear. However, even without direct radiocarbon dates, the excavators have considered these human remains to be Early Holocene (Arnaud/Bento 1988, 33). The earliest phase of this site is attributed to the Early Mesolithic (Preboreal and Boreal) currently based on three dates on charcoal and shells ranging from 11 247 to 9157 cal BP (Tab. 1). There is no evidence for earlier or later uses of this cave, except for some skeletons of very recent fauna (Arnaud/ Bento 1988, 32). Nevertheless, this archaeological context is disturbed and in the scope of this study it should be considered with caution. Toledo (Open-air shell midden, Vimeiro/Estremadura; Fig. 1,11). The human remains recovered from this site are various loose teeth, a fragment of a femur and two foot phalanges. This material corresponds to one or possibly two individuals (Gonçalves 2o11). The human remains were recovered scattered throughout the site in no apparent association. However, both the femur and the two foot phalanges were recovered in the same site area (Talude). Their excavation in two distinct layers can be interpreted as post-depositional since this area was in fact disturbed by the construction of a road (op. cit.). There are various perforated shells of Theodoxus fluviatilis, Nassarius reticulatus and Cerastoderma edule (Dupont 2o11) scattered throughout the site but their possible association with the human remains is unknown. Although there are no direct radiocarbon dates on the human remains of this site, these seem to be in clear association with the Early Mesolithic layers of occupation (Araújo 2o11). This material was excavated between 1995 and 1998, with the exception of eight loose teeth recovered in previous and unpublished excavations. The site is currently dated based on three dates on shells ranging from 1o 113 to 9439 cal BP (Tab. 1). Pinhal da Fonte (Open-air shell midden, S. Pedro Cadeira/Estremadura; Fig. 1,12). The human remains recovered at this site are just one fragment of a scapula (acromion), excavated in 1986 (Zilhão/ Lubell 1987) still undated and apparently found in the shell midden layers. This site is attributed to the Early Mesolithic (Araújo 2o12) based on lithic analysis and on one radiocarbon date on shell ranging from 9465 to 91o9 cal BP (Tab. 1).. Other sites Vale Boi is an open-air site located in the Algarve (Fig. 1,16), in use at least during the Upper Palaeolithic [area 1: slope] and the Early Neolithic [area 2: terrace] (Carvalho et al. 2oo8). The human remains recovered from this site in 2oo4 are just one tooth (a molar) with a direct date ranging from 838o to 8oo4 cal BP (Tab. 1). This tooth was found in area 2, in the Early Neolithic layers, and according to the excavators it is probably not in its original context. If there is a Mesolithic occupation in this site, it has not yet been found (Carvalho et al. 2oo8). This date puts this tooth in the complex border between the Early and the Late Mesolithic and is already contemporaneous with the earliest inhumations in both the Tagus and Sado valleys. For this reason, this site is listed with the sites with human remains of Late Mesolithic chronology (Tab. 2), and is therefore excluded from the present analysis. Another site initially considered in this study was Abrigo Grande das Bocas in Rio Maior. This rock shelter is a Late Magdalenian/Mesolithic site with a top layer with finds that go from the Early Neolithic to the Middle Ages. Layer 1 (top) is interpreted as probably Mesolithic (Bicho 1997, 63) and this is the layer where we have the description of the recovery of human bones. The nature and context of these bones is unclear; therefore this site was discarded from the present analysis.. Summary of results, Portugal A common problem in all these sites is related to the archaeological contexts that were partially or almost completely destroyed prior to archaeological excavations. The lack of direct radiocarbon dates on the human remains makes it even more problematic to rely on this material. Another problem is the poor description of the human remains and their archaeological context, with the exception of Toledo. Nevertheless, despite these limitations it is possible to make some observations and outline some general traits. Based on the currently available data in Portugal for the very early stages of the Holocene, there are only three sites with human remains. One is a cave site (Casal Papagaio) and the other two are open-air sites (Pinhal da Fonte and Toledo). All three sites have shell layers (Tab. 2). Not surprisingly, teeth are the most common human remains preserved, with one interesting exception (Pinhal da Fonte). In two of these sites we have fragments of two other types of bones that preserve well: a femur (Toledo) and a cranium (Casal Papagaio). In this context Pinhal da Fonte is an interesting case of preservation, or bone manipulation, with no teeth or long bones, but a fragment of a bone not commonly preserved: the scapula. So far, there are no reports of cut marks or any other anthropic marks on any of these bones. The human remains are disarticulated and fragmented and show no direct evidence for Early Mesolithic burial practice.. Ta g u n g e n d e s L a n d e s m u s e u m s f ü r V o r g e s c h i c h t e H a ll e • B a n d 13 • 2 016.

(18) R o o t s o f d e at h : o r i g i n s o f h u m a n b u r i a l a n d t h e r e s e a r c h o n E a r ly H o l o c e n e m o r t u a r y p r a c t i c e s i n t h e Ib e r i a n P e n i n s u l a. Iberian Peninsula: Spain In Spain, I have identified ten sites with Early Mesolithic human remains. In addition to the record for fragmented and disarticulated human remains, there are clear examples of human burial and reports of anthropic marks in some of this material as well.. Poza l’Egua (Rock shelter with shell midden layers, Llanes/Asturias; Fig. 1,4). The human remains recovered from this site in 2ooo are one isolated mandible of an adult male found in the shell midden layers (Arias [Cabal] et al. 2oo7; 2oo9, 652). There is one direct radiocarbon date on this individual ranging from 9731 to 94o9 cal BP (Tab. 1).. Los Azules (Cave, Cangas de Onís/Asturias; Fig. 1,1). The human remains recovered from this site are one inhumation of a possibly complete adult male. This material corresponds to one individual (Garralda 1986) and was excavated in 1975 (Fernández-Tresguerres 1976; Garralda 1986). There are no direct radiocarbon dates on the human remains, due to lack of collagen (Arias 2oo5, 362; Meiklejohn 2oo9, 12). According to the original descriptions (Fernández-Tresguerres 1976, 769), this was a well-prepared grave, and the burial was undisturbed between layers 3a and 3d, which were dated and range from 11 2o1 to 1o 3oo cal BP (Tab. 1). Some fauna is described in association with the burial (Arias/Álvarez-Fernández 2oo4; Arias et al. 2oo9, 65o). This context is also reported as one of the few well documented uses of ochre in the Peninsula (Arias 2o1o, 84) for this early period. Tito Bustillo (Cave, Ribadesella/Asturias; Fig. 1,2). The human remains recovered from this site correspond to possibly one complete male adult (Drak/Garralda 2oo9, 267). This individual was partially excavated in the late 196os and finally completely recovered in the early 2ooos (Arias et al. 2oo9, 651; Drak/Garralda 2oo9, 266–267). According to the excavators this individual was not deposited in a pit but laid on the floor of the cave, hence not buried. The body was in partial anatomical connection and small bones, like foot phalanges, were also documented. It has not been possible to determine if the body was originally covered (Arias 2o1o, 87) but there are remains of red colourant associated with the skeleton (Arias et al. 2oo9, 651). This individual was found lying deep inside the cave, far from the entrance (Arias 2o12, 8). This site is known for its Palaeolithic phase and the burial was initially considered Magdalenian (Arias/ÁlvarezFernández 2oo4, 227). However, the human remains have a direct date ranging from 9542 to 9421 cal BP (Tab. 1). Cuartamentero (Cave with shell midden layers, Llanes/Asturias; Fig. 1,3). The human remains recovered at this site are one fragment of the cranium of an adult, possibly male, and various loose teeth (Drak/Garralda 2oo9; Meiklejohn 2oo9, 9), corresponding to at least one individual. This material was collected in the 196os by amateurs visiting and excavating at the site (Arias 2oo5, 364). Although the context is unknown, the cranium was dated by P. Arias (Drak/Garralda 2oo9, 272) ranging from 9495 to 93o3 cal BP (Tab. 1).. Ta g u n g e n d e s L a n d e s m u s e u m s f ü r V o r g e s c h i c h t e H a ll e • B a n d 13 • 2 016. Mazaculos II (Cave with shell midden layers, La Franca/Asturias; Fig. 1,5). The human remains recovered from this site are one fragment of a mandible (Gonzáles Morales 1995, 75) of an adult, possibly male (Drak/Garralda 2oo9, 273). This material was recovered in 1993 from disturbed layers (Gonzáles Morales 1995, 75) but was dated by P. Arias (Drak/Garralda 2oo9, 273) and ranges from 8765 to 8542 cal BP (Tab. 1). J3 (Rock shelter with shell midden layers, Gipuzkoa/Basque Country; Fig. 1,7). The human remains recovered from this site are poorly preserved but are possibly a complete adult male. This material corresponds to one individual, in primary position, laid in the bottom of the shell layers (Iriarte et al. 2oo5; Iriarte-Chiapusso et al. 2o1o). There is one direct radiocarbon date on this individual ranging from 944o to 9133 cal BP (Tab. 1). Abric Agut (Rock shelter, Barcelona/Catalonia; Fig. 1,9). The human remains recovered at this site are one fragment of a temporal bone and various loose teeth. This material may correspond to one to five individuals (Meiklejohn 2oo9, 1o), however, Campillo and colleagues (1999, 4o) consider the hypothesis that they are the remains of a single individual. This material was excavated in 191o –1914 [four teeth] and 1976 [one tooth] (Campillo et al. 1999, 41; Vaquero et al. 2oo2, 954) but the small fragment of temporal bone was only found during a revision of the 191o –1914 material (Campillo et al. 1999). This site has been attributed to the Middle Palaeolithic, but it was recently re-interpreted as Early Holocene/Early Mesolithic (Vaquero et al. 2oo2). The site is currently dated based on five dates on charcoal ranging from 11 975 to 1o 235 cal BP (Tab. 1); with no direct dates on the human remains. El Collado (Open-air shell midden, Oliva/Valencia; Fig. 1,13). The human remains recovered at this site consist of 15 buried individuals in primary position, of both sexes and various ages (Aura Tortosa 2o1o, 36). This material was excavated in 1987–1989 and there is a new project re-examining this collection (Gibaja et al. 2o15; cf. Terradas et al. in the present volume). Three graves were dated by the first project dedicated to this site, ranging from 1o 134 to 8o14 cal BP (Tab. 1). This is the only Mesolithic site in Spain with more than ten burials and the only site in the Iberian Peninsula with a large quantity of human remains from the Early Mesolithic.. 635.

(19) 636. R i ta P e y r o t e o S tj er n a. Santa Maira (Cave, Alicante/Valencia; Fig. 1,14). Summary of results, Spain. The human remains recovered from this site consist of 3o bone fragments corresponding to at least two adults (Aura Tortosa et al. 2o1o, 17o), possibly three (Aura et al. 2o11, 355). This material was recovered scattered throughout the site and, according to Aura Tortosa and colleagues (2o1o), some of these fragments show evidence for cut marks made by stone tools, intentional fracturing and thermal alteration. It has been suggested that these body parts were possibly consumed, but this cultural interpretation for the processing of body parts requires further research (Aura Tortosa et al. 2o1o, 172). One bone fragment (Santa Maira W 3–18) is dated ranging from 9885 to 954o cal BP (Tab. 1). Nevertheless, this site has a long sequence of occupation from the Upper Palaeolithic to the Neolithic (op. cit.).. Based on the currently available data, in Spain, for the very early stages of the Holocene, there are ten sites with human remains, concentrated in three major areas: one Atlantic and two Mediterranean (Fig. 1). Of these ten sites, nine are cave/ rock shelter sites and only one is an open-air site (El Collado). Only four of these sites have shell layers (Tab. 2). The human remains recovered in half of these sites correspond to disarticulated and fragmented bones (Cuartamentero, Poza l’Egua, Mazaculos II, Abric Agut and Santa Maira) with reports of anthropic marks in one site (Santa Maira). The human remains recovered from the other five sites (Los Azules, Tito Bustillo, J3, El Collado and Penya del Comptador) correspond to complete, or almost complete individuals, at least partially articulated. There is clear evidence for human burial in at least three sites (Los Azules, J3 and El Collado) showing a positive indication of Early Mesolithic burial practice, in both cave/rock shelter sites and open-air sites.. Penya del Comptador (Rock shelter, Baetic Mountains/Valencia; Fig. 1,15). The human remains recovered from this site are the partially preserved skeletal remains of at least three individuals, one adult, a juvenile [c. 15 years old] and a child [c. 8–9 years old] (Aura Tortosa 2o1o). This site was excavated in 2ooo (Aura Tortosa 2o1o, 36) and very limited contextual information has been published. One of these individuals has a direct radiocarbon date ranging from 96oo to 9483 cal BP (Tab. 1), but it is unclear which individual was dated.. Other sites Los Canes is a cave in Asturias (Fig. 1,6) with at least three Late Mesolithic burials (Arias 2oo5; Arias et al. 2oo9), and an isolated Magdalenian human bone with a date ranging from 15 912 to 15 236 cal BP (Tab. 1). Another individual recovered from this cave has a direct radiocarbon date ranging from 8996 to 8o36 cal BP (Tab. 1); however, this sample did not yield any isotopic results (Arias 2oo5) and without further analyses this date has a relative degree of uncertainty. Nevertheless, this date falls into the complex border between the Early and the Late Mesolithic and is possibly already contemporaneous with the earliest inhumations in both the Tagus and Sado valleys. For this reason, this site is listed with the sites with human remains of Late Mesolithic chronology (Tab. 2), and is therefore excluded from the present analysis. Balma Guilanyà, a rock shelter in Catalonia (Fig. 1,8), had fragmentary remains of three individuals: one adult, one sub-adult and one child (Garcia-Guixé et al. 2oo9; Meiklejohn 2oo9). The context is unclear but there are two direct dates on this material, ranging from 13 333 to 11 212 cal BP (Tab. 1). This material is on average slightly older than the scope of this research. Nevertheless, because of the rarity of this type of find it is mentioned here, although not considered in the general discussion.. Discussion Following this review it is important to evaluate the influence of preservation and research bias in the results. The first aspect to consider concerns the preservation of organic material in the Mesolithic sites known in the Iberian Peninsula. As discussed, human remains are preserved in less than 25 % of the c. 2oo Early and Late Mesolithic sites known in Iberia (Fig. 2). However, 117 of these sites have fauna assemblages (Gallego Lletjós 2o13, 452), which correspond to bone preservation in at least 6o % of the sites. Moreover, some of these sites have been excavated quite intensively, and if these sites had human remains, these would have been preserved and found, at least in many of them. The second aspect is related to inevitable research bias. It is true that the concentration of sites with human remains corresponds to the areas where archaeological research is also more intense (Gallego Lletjós 2o13). Also, and despite the geoclimatic variability in Iberia, it has been shown that when a specialised systematic survey is done, new sites are identified (Arias et al. 2oo9a). Yet new finds have been very limited and have not changed the current Mesolithic paradigm for settlement patterns, despite recent survey programmes and large archaeological rescue projects developed in the context of local construction and land development. The visibility of these sites is also an important issue to consider. The apparent lack of open-air sites without shell layers and potentially with human remains could be a result of research bias, as these sites are obviously more difficult to identify than caves or shell middens. This is certainly an incomplete record and further research will most probably add new sites to this catalogue. Thus, it seems likely that the rarity of human remains is a real pattern, because currently, less than 25 % of Early and Late Mesolithic sites have human remains; while 6o % have well known fauna assemblages. According to the current data, the presence of human remains is more common in cave/rock shelter contexts in the Early Mesolithic (Tab. 2; Fig. 3). Ta g u n g e n d e s L a n d e s m u s e u m s f ü r V o r g e s c h i c h t e H a ll e • B a n d 13 • 2 016.

(20) R o o t s o f d e at h : o r i g i n s o f h u m a n b u r i a l a n d t h e r e s e a r c h o n E a r ly H o l o c e n e m o r t u a r y p r a c t i c e s i n t h e Ib e r i a n P e n i n s u l a. open-air 3 (23 %). cave/ rock shelter 8 (33 %). open-air 16 (67 %). cave/ rock shelter 10 (77 %). Fig. 3 Sites (13) with preserved human remains of Early Mesolithic chronology, Iberian Peninsula. Site contexts: cave/rock shelter (1o) and open-air (3).. Fig. 4 Sites (24) with preserved human remains of Late Mesolithic chronology, Iberian Peninsula. Site contexts: cave/rock shelter (8) and open-air (16).. The use of caves/rock shelters for the disposal of human remains seems to decrease through time during the Mesolithic. Yet this practice is not abandoned when open-air sites become the most common option for the disposal of human remains (Tab. 2; Fig. 4). At the same time, during the Late Mesolithic, there is an increase of sites with human remains (Fig. 2) accompanied by the intensification of burial practice (Tab. 2; Fig. 5). However, this increase in open-air sites with large numbers of human burials is concentrated in the Tagus and Sado valleys in Portugal, where 12 of these sites are located with c. 376 inhumations (Tab. 2; Fig. 5). Another aspect shown by the data is that the shell midden/shell layer component is not a determinant variable for the presence of human remains during the Mesolithic. There is evidence for the disposal and preservation of bone in both situations, with and without shell layers (Tab. 2).. Interestingly, the sites with shell midden layers tend to contain more inhumations than the sites without (Tab. 2). This relationship is possibly not a result of preservation but of cultural choice. Summing up, the contexts with human remains in the Early Mesolithic are frequently caves or rock shelters with or without shell layers. If we do not consider the new concentration of open-air sites in the Tagus and Sado valleys this outline does not change during the Late Mesolithic. The statistical growth of burial practice in open-air shell middens is outstanding, due to the data from the Tagus and Sado valleys. Otherwise, the data for both Early and Late Mesolithic does not differ. A last point to evaluate is the intentionality of the practices in the 13 sites with Early Mesolithic human remains, analysed in this study. Only three sites (Los Azules, J3 and El Collado) show clear evidence for funerary burial practice.. 450 400 350 300 250 376. 200 150 Fig. 5 Minimum number of individuals (MNI) recovered from 37 sites with preserved human remains of Early and Late Mesolithic chronology, Iberian Peninsula. Before c. 8ooo cal BP: MNI 32/13 sites. After c. 8ooo cal BP: MNI 397/24 sites; of which MNI 376/12 sites in the Tagus and Sado valleys, and MNI 21/12 sites elsewhere in the Iberian Peninsula (Tab. 2).. 100 50 0. Ta g u n g e n d e s L a n d e s m u s e u m s f ü r V o r g e s c h i c h t e H a ll e • B a n d 13 • 2 016. 32. 21. before c. 8000 cal BP. after c. 8000 cal BP. 637.

(21) 1 1 to 5 2 1 to 2 1 15. J3, Basque Country (ES). Abric Agut, Catalonia (ES). Casal Papagaio, Estremadura (PT). Toledo, Estremadura (PT). Pinhal da Fonte, Estremadura (PT). El Collado, Valencia (ES). c. 8000 cal BP to Early Neolithic. 2. Mazaculos II, Asturias (ES). 1 2 to 3 4 to 5 110 85 29. Vale Boi, Algarve (PT). Fonte Padre Pedro, Tagus (PT). Flor da Beira, Tagus (PT). Cabeço da Arruda, Tagus (PT). Moita do Sebastião, Tagus (PT). Cabeço da Amoreira, Tagus (PT). 3. 1. Poza l‘Egua, Asturias (ES). Penya del Comptador, Valencia (ES). 1. Cuartamentero, Asturias (ES). 2 to 3. 1. Tito Bustillo, Asturias (ES). Santa Maira, Valencia (ES). 1. Los Azules, Asturias (ES). c. 11 650 to 8000 cal BP. MNI. Site. Chronology. Bicho et al. 2013; Cunha/Cardoso 2001; Roksandic´ 2006. Jackes/Meiklejohn 2008. Cunha/Cardoso 2003; Roksandic´ 2006. Meiklejohn et al. 2009. Meiklejohn et al. 2009. Carvalho et al. 2008. Aura Tortosa 2010. Aura [Tortosa] et al. 2010; 2011. Aura Tortosa 2010. Zilhão/Lubell 1987. Gonçalves 2011. Arnaud/Bento 1988. Campillo et al. 1999. Iriarte et al. 2005. Gonzáles Morales 1995; Drak/Garralda 2009. Arias Cabal et al. 2007. Arias 2005; Drak/Garralda 2009. Arias et al. 2009; Drak/Garralda 2009. Garralda 1986. Reference. inhumations. inhumations. inhumations. inhumations. inhumations. tooth. inhumations?. 30 fragments; anthropic marks. inhumations. frag. scapula. loose teeth; frag. femur; foot phalanges. cranial fragments; loose teeth. frag. temporal bone; loose teeth. inhumation. frag. mandible. mandible. frag. cranium; loose teeth. complete individual. inhumation. Human remains. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. C/RS OA. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. SL. 638 R i ta P e y r o t e o S tj er n a. Ta g u n g e n d e s L a n d e s m u s e u m s f ü r V o r g e s c h i c h t e H a ll e • B a n d 13 • 2 016.

(22) Ta g u n g e n d e s L a n d e s m u s e u m s f ü r V o r g e s c h i c h t e H a ll e • B a n d 13 • 2 016. 32 16 1 6 26 32 to 36 1 2 1 1 3 to 4 1 1 1 1 2 6. Arapouco, Sado (PT). Poças de S. Bento, Sado (PT). Várzea da Mó, Sado (PT). Cabeço das Amoreiras, Sado (PT). Vale de Romeiras, Sado (PT). Cabeço do Pez, Sado (PT). Fiais, Alentejo (PT). Samouqueira, Alentejo (PT). Higuerón, Andalusia (ES). Aizpea, Navarra (ES). Los Canes, Asturias (ES). Colomba, Asturias (ES). Linatzeta, Basque Country (ES). La Garma B, Cantabria (ES). Truchiro, Cantabria (ES). Braña-Arintero, Castilla y León (ES). Cingle del Mas Nou, Valencia (ES). Olària i Puyoles 2002/03; Olària et al. 2005. Vidal Encinas et al. 2008. Arias/Álvarez-Fernández 2004. Arias/Álvarez-Fernández 2004. Tapia Sagarna et al. 2008. Garcia-Guixé et al. 2009. Arias et al. 2009; Drak/Garralda 2009. Barandiarán Maestu/Cava Almazara 2002. Muñoz-Gambero et al. 2006. Lubell/Jackes 1985. Lubell et al. 2007. Cunha/Umbelino 1997. Cunha/Umbelino 1997. Cunha/Umbelino 1997. Arnaud 1989; Cunha/Umbelino 1997. Cunha/Umbelino 1997; Diniz et al. 2014. Cunha/Umbelino 1997. Cunha/Cardoso 2003. inhumations. complete individuals. inhumation. frag. vertebra. various human bones. various human bones. inhumations; isolated bones. inhumation. frag. cranium. inhumations. inhumation. inhumations. inhumations. inhumations. inhumations. inhumations. inhumations. inhumations. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. x. Tab. 2 Sites (37) with human remains of Early and Late Mesolithic chronology, Iberian Peninsula, sorted chronologically and geographically. (MNI) minimum number of individuals; (Shading) sites located in Tagus and Sado valleys; (C/RS) cave/rock shelter; (OA) open-air; (SL) shell layers.. 32 or 36. Cova da Onça, Tagus (PT). R o o t s o f d e at h : o r i g i n s o f h u m a n b u r i a l a n d t h e r e s e a r c h o n E a r ly H o l o c e n e m o r t u a r y p r a c t i c e s i n t h e Ib e r i a n P e n i n s u l a. 639.

(23) 640. R i ta P e y r o t e o S tj er n a. The individual from Tito Bustillo was not buried but laid on the floor, deep inside a small cave. The presence of red colourant in association with this skeleton is one positive indication for funerary practice, and its placement in the very interior of a small cave shows an evident concern with the placement of the body in a secluded space. The data is unclear at Toledo and Penya del Comptador. However, these contexts could be the result of funerary practice – represented by the remains of possibly disturbed burials or other forms of funerary disposal – and/or manipulation of human remains with various other intentions. Six sites (Casal Papagaio, Pinhal da Fonte, Cuartamentero, Poza l’Egua, Mazaculos II and Abric Agut) show no evidence for burial practice, but the funerary interpretation is possible. In this case, these sites could provide data for practices of funerary caching, possibly related to secondary manipulation of human bones. Other practices, not funerary, cannot be discarded as possible interpretations. Finally, Santa Maira shows clear evidence for complex manipulation of human remains, however, not necessarily related to a funerary context. In most of these sites the intentional manipulation of human remains is clear. Whether this behaviour is related to funerary practice, or other practices involving the manipulation of human remains, is in most cases unclear. Summing up, during the Early and Late Mesolithic in the Iberian Peninsula, the archaeological record shows clear examples of manipulation of human remains, both in funerary contexts and other possible circumstances. In continuity with what is known for the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic (Pettitt 2o11) the data for the Early Mesolithic shows that burial practice exists, but it was not common. Furthermore, the data shows that mortuary behaviours vary regionally and discontinuously.. Conclusion Archaeological data shows that burial practice is not an innovation of the Mesolithic. The origins of burial practice go back to the Middle Palaeolithic, but until the Late Mesolithic these are very unusual practices (Pettitt 2o11). Following this, the origins of places of systematic burial practice go back to the Late Upper Palaeolithic (op. cit.) and become more common in the Late Mesolithic in some regions, such as at the Tagus and Sado valleys, and in other regions, as well documented in this volume. According to the data collected for this study, from the Early to the Late Mesolithic there is a statistical increase of burial practice in the Iberian Peninsula. Also, this increase in burial practice happens as the evidence for open-air sites increases as well. However, this statistical growth in burial practice in open-air sites, during the Mesolithic in Iberia, is only valid when we add the data from the great concentration of inhumations from the open-air shell middens of the Tagus and Sado valleys. Generally, and accepting these results as representative of a real pattern, the data shows that mortuary practices vary regionally and discontinuously over time. More specifically, burial data clusters into certain regions during certain peri-. ods of time, suggesting that mortuary traditions were not transmitted continuously, as documented for the European Upper Palaeolithic (Pettitt 2o11, 232) as well. This variability and discontinuity in the mortuary practices emphasises that burial practice is not the end point of a development of a funerary practice, or the end point of an internal social development of hunter-gatherers either. Burial practice is one of many possible cultural options for the treatment of the dead, many of these not visible in the archaeological record. Also, burial practice is not necessarily more complex than any other cultural option for the treatment of the dead, to which can be added that absence of burial is not equivalent to absence of mortuary practice either. From this perspective, mortuary practices cannot be approached in a progressive evolutionary way: burial is not a next step of directional development for hunter-gatherers. Based on the current empirical data I cannot argue for a »behaviour tradition« leading to the mortuary practices known at the shell middens of Tagus and Sado valleys. On the contrary, we see a clear discontinuity in the archaeological record, also supported by various studies on the Early Mesolithic settlement pattern in the region (Araújo 2oo3; 2o12). Furthermore, this mortuary behaviour in the Tagus and Sado valleys is not only in contrast with previous Early Mesolithic sites but with contemporaneous sites in the Iberian Peninsula – a point that stresses the regional character of mortuary practices. This regional relationship to death is consistent with the particular settlement pattern known in this region, also unique in the Iberian Peninsula – with the formation of large shell midden sites clustered by the borders of the palaeo-estuaries of the Tagus and Sado rivers. Finally, it is suggested that the origins of the mortuary behaviour known for the last hunter-gatherers of the Tagus and Sado valleys cannot be explained by demic or cultural diffusion, rather, its roots are local, related to regional constraints and intrinsic to the social dynamics of these groups. The archaeological record points to a local paradigm shift concerning death, which is arguably consistent with the changes of world-view of the last hunter-gatherers of the Tagus and Sado valleys. Yet this new relationship with death arises in the context of wider metamorphoses in the region, and death studies should be fully integrated in a holistic approach to the archaeology of the last hunter-gatherers.. Acknowledgements I am grateful to The Portuguese National Science Foundation (FCT) for funding this research (SFRH/BD/72758/2o1o) and to the Department of Archaeology and Ancient History at Uppsala University for the financial support to attend the Mesolithic Burials Conference. I would like to thank Ana Cristina Araújo, Mariana Diniz, Kjel Knutsson and Tore Stjerna for reading and commenting on an early draft of this text, António Faustino Carvalho and Miriam Cubas for providing relevant bibliography, Xavier Terradas for his assistance with the radiocarbon dates for El Collado and António Monge Soares for the unpublished information on marine ΔR values. All errors and omissions remain my own. Ta g u n g e n d e s L a n d e s m u s e u m s f ü r V o r g e s c h i c h t e H a ll e • B a n d 13 • 2 016.