Legado

Dada a grandeza da obra de FLO, seria desnecessário enumerar o conjunto total de obras realizadas, rejeitadas, não realizadas e incompletas. Por isso decidimos colocar aqui apenas as que foram realizadas com sucesso e que possuem manutenção e preservação permanente, embora alguns dos projetos inconclusos ou não realizados tenham sido retomados nos últimos anos. A lista a seguir (Quadro 4 1) foi compilada a partir de Beveridge (1995) e Rybczynski (2003).

Quadro 4 1 - Visão geral de obras de Frederick Law Olmsted.  Comunidades Residenciais

Obra Cidade/Lugar Estado Ano

Riverside (Atual Chicago) Ill. 1868-87

Sudbrook Baltimore MD 1876-1892

Druid Hills Atlanta Ga. 1892-1905

Brookline Brookline Mass. 1884-92

 Campus Acadêmicos e Instituições Residenciais

Obra Cidade/Lugar Estado Ano

Lawrenceville School Lawrenceville N.J. 1883-1901

Trinity College Hartford Conn. 1972-94

Yale University New Haven Conn. 1874-81

Cornell University Ithaca N.Y. 1867-73

Smith College Northampton Mass. 1891-1909

Hartford Retreat Hartford Conn. 1860-74

McLean Asylum Waverly Mass. 1872-75 Bloomingdale Asylum White Plains N.Y. 1892-94

 Projeto Doméstico

Obra Cidade/Lugar Estado Ano

Fairsted Brookline Mass. 1883

Moraine Farm Beverly Mass. 1880

 Preservação da Paisagem

Obra Cidade/Lugar Estado Ano

Yosemite Valley e Mariposa Big Tree

Grove Cal. 1864-65

Niagara Reservation Niagara N.Y. 1879-95

 Paisagismo para o Semiárido

Obra Cidade/Lugar Estado Ano

Public Pleasure Grounds San Francisco Cal. 1865-67

Mountain View Cemetery Oakland Cal. 186-65

The College of California Berkeley Cal. 1865

Stanford University Palo Alto Cal. 1886-1914

Lake Wauconda Perry Park Col.

 Outros

Obra Cidade/Lugar Estado Ano

Terreno do Capitólio Washington DC 1875-94

Biltmore Asheville N.C. 1891-1909

World’s Columbian Exposition Chicago Ill. 1888-93  Parques

Obra Cidade/Lugar Estado Ano

Central Park Nova Iorque N.Y. 1858-16

Prospect Park Brooklin N.Y. 1865-95

South Park Chicago Ill. 1870-95

Belle Isle Detroit Mich. 1881-95

Lake Park Milwaukere Wisconsin 1892-1908

Seaside Park Bridgeport Conn. 1867

Mount Royal Montreal CANADA 1873-93

 Sistema de Parques

SISTEMA E CIDADE ESTADO ANO

Buffalo System (The Front, Parade e Delaware Park) N.Y. 1868-1915 Boston System ou Emerald Necklace (The Back Bay Fens,

Riverway, Arnold Arboretum e Franklin Park) Mass. 1878-1921 Rochester System (Parques Genesee Valley, Seneca e

Highland) N.Y. 1890-1912

Embora pareça uma lista extensa, essa apenas mostra a parcela mais conhecida da obra total de FLO que é ainda muito mais numerosa. Os filhos mantiveram a unidade e rigor ideológico de FLO em todos os projetos realizados pelo escritório (Olmsted Brothers) criado por eles, até seu encerramento nos anos 1950. Ainda assim, nenhuma de suas obras conseguiu superar a grandeza do Central Park em aporte urbano e dimensão humana, conforme veremos a seguir.

NOTAS

1 _{Tradução livre do autor do original em língua inglesa. I think the one thing that's surprising about him is that he's a little}

bit like the character in the Woody Allen movie Zelig -- the person who shows up at every historical moment. Olmsted is like that in the sense that he's in the American South just before the Civil War, he's in the Civil War as the Secretary General of the U.S. Sanitary Commission, he's on the Western frontier, he's in Chicago just after the fire. The difference is that he's not a bystander; he's usually in the middle of things and very much involved in them. He's somebody whose life really is also the story of the time he lives in, which is why I subtitle the book "America in the Nineteenth Century." (RBCZYNSKI, 1999)

2 _{Tradução livre do autor do original em língua inglesa. While not an active churchman throughout his life, Olmsted was}

strongly aligned with these reform movements, which Irving Fisher has characterized as a shift from an ascetic to an aesthetic moral philosophy and which Ann Douglas has labeled the "feminization of American culture."' Douglas proposes that there was a parallel between female and clerical disestablishment in the nineteenth-century and that both groups, women generally and the liberal clergy specifically, found themselves cut off from real power and authority in society and reduced instead to the role of mere wielders of "influence." (SCHEPER, 1989, p 337).

3 _{http://www.echonyc.com/~parks/books/bridges.html} 4 _{http://www.olmsted.org/home} 5 _{http://www.nps.gov/frla/olmstedarchives.htm} 6 _{http://goo.gl/GQFTaH} 7 _{http://www.centralpark.com/} 8 _{http://oll.libertyfund.org/people/alexander-pope} 9 _{Tradução livre do autor do original em língua inglesa.}

To build, to plant, whatever you intend, To rear the column, or the arch to bend, To swell the terrace, or to sink the grot. In all let Nature never be forgot; But treat the goddess like a modest fair. Nor overdress, nor leave her wholly bare; Let not each beauty everywhere be spied, Where half the skill is decently to hide. He gains all points who pleasingly confounds, Surprises, varies, and conceals the bounds. Consult the Genius of Place in all, That tells the Waters or to rise, or fall, Or helps th’ambitious Hill the heav’ns to scale, Or scoops in circling Theatres the Vale, Calls the Country, catches opening Glades,

Joins willing Woods, and varies Shades from Shades, Now breaks, or now directs, th’intending Lines,

Paints as you plant, and as you work, Designs. (POPE, 1859, p.248).

10 _{Tradução livre do autor do original em língua inglesa. All rational improvement of grounds is, necessarily, founded on a}

due attention to the character and situation of the place to be improved: the former teaches what is advisable, the latter what is possible, to be done; while the extent of the premises has less influence than is generally imagined; as, however large or small it may be, one of the fundamental principles of landscape gardening is to disguise the real boundary (REPTON, 1907,

p.7)

11 _{Tradução livre do autor do original em língua espanhola. Olmsted fue uno de los arquitectos paisajistas norteamericanos}

más destacados del siglo XIX e inventó en 1862 la denominación de arquitecto del paisaje (landscape architect) para sustituir la heredada de Humphry Repton (landscape designer). Olmsted era consciente de que el objetivo esencial de su disciplina era la conformación del espacio público moderno. El término inglés para paisaje, landscape, es la conjunción de land (tierra) y scape, una derivación del término shape (forma). Al evitar la palabra gardening, que acercaba su actividad al área de la horticultura y utilizar architecture, Olmsted asignaba una dimensión artística además de la técnica, y subrayaba su vocación cívica y pública. La creación del paisaje como concepto artístico había sido responsabilidad de la pintura: la

visión arcádica de la jardinería dieciochesca de Repton o Brown que inspiró a Olmsted y Vaux era heredera de las obras de

Nicolas Poussin o Claude Lorrain. (GARCÍA-POSADA, 2007, p.26-27).

12 _{Tradução livre do autor do original em língua inglesa. While Olmsted sought to make each design unique by basing it on}

the special qualities of the individual site, he was not willing to use only native plants in his creation of scenery. He used many plants that were already part of the landscape character of the place and he knew they would thrive with little care. Still, he was anxious to enrich the natural scenery, and to do so he was willing to employ any thrifty plant that would add richness and variety without striking the average viewer as unnatural or exotic. (BEVERIDGE, 2000).

13 _{Tradução livre do autor do original em língua inglesa. First, Olmsted believes that in a democratic society people,}

regardless of socio-economic standing, should sense that they belong to a community, and he attempts to create civic spaces where this feeling of fraternity can be nurtured. Second, Olmsted links democracy to an even broader concept, that of “civilization.” If his thoughts about democratic community emphasize integration and belonging, his treatment of civilization highlights the need for individual transformation or character formation, a process that involves not only political and social institutions but also the world of nature, especially when enhanced by human design. Third, the aforementioned republican features of Olmsted‟s thought—which emphasize democratic solidarity and virtue acquisition—rest on a classically liberal commitment to individual liberty. Whereas the republican elements are more familiar to most readers, Olmsted‟s liberalism should not be overlooked; both are woven into his art and thinking—each strand answering different needs but together reflecting that grand “miscellany” of American democracy (ROULIER, 2009, pp. 312-313).

14 _{Tradução livre do autor do original em língua inglesa. Yet it now seems clear that with Olmsted's resignation from the}

Sanitary Commission a potentially vital connection was severed — the connection between physical design and public health. The disconnection would remain in place for more than a century — and only very recently have the ties begun to be restored. (…)This disconnection was not the fault of Olmsted; nor can we attribute it to landscape architecture as a field. In the decades after the Civil War, public health, as a discipline, began to move in a very different direction, focusing less on the physical, on sanitary conditions, and more on the medical, on epidemiology. (FISHER, 2010). Disponível em:

http://goo.gl/laQlW8. Acesso em: 22/Abr/2014.

15 _{Tradução livre do autor do original em língua inglesa. Now, knowing that the average length of life of mankind in towns}

has been much less than in the country, and that the average amount of disease and misery and of vice and crime has been much greater in towns, this would be a very dark prospect for civilization, if it were not that modern Science has beyond all question determined many of the causes of the special evils by which men are afflicted in towns, and placed means in our hands for guarding against them. It has shown, for example, that under ordinary circumstances, in the interior parts of large and closely built towns, a given quantity of air contains considerably less of the elements which we require to receive through the lungs than the air of the country or even of the outer and more open parts of a town, and that instead of them it carries into the lungs highly corrupt and irritating matters, the action of which tends strongly to vitiate all our sources of vigor – how strongly may perhaps be indicated in the shortest way by the statement that even metallic plates and statues corrode and wear away under the atmospheric influences which prevail in the midst of large towns, more rapidly than in the country (OLMSTED, 1870, pp. 10-11).

16 _{Tradução livre do autor do original em língua inglesa. It is a scientific fact that the occasional contemplation of natural}

scenes of an impressive character, particularly if this contemplation occurs in connection with relief from ordinary cares, change of air and change of habits, is favorable to the health and vigor of men and especially to the health and vigor of their intellect beyond any other conditions which can be offered them, that it not only gives pleasure for the time being but increases the subsequent capacity for happiness and the means of securing happiness. The want of such occasional recreation where men and women are habitually pressed by their business or household cares often results in a class of disorders the characteristic quality of which is mental disability, sometimes taking the severe forms of softening of the brain, paralysis, palsy, monomania, or insanity, but more frequently of mental and nervous excitability, moroseness, melancholy or irascibility, incapacitating the subject for the proper exercise of the intellectual and moral forces (OLMSTED, 1868).

17 _{Tradução livre do autor do original em língua inglesa. It is not simply to give the people of the city an opportunity for}

getting fresh air and exercise. .. . It is not simply to make a place of amusement or for the gratification of curiosity or for gaining knowledge. The main object and justification is simply to produce a certain influence in the minds of people and through this to make life in the city healthier and happier. (SCHEPER, 1989, p. 372).

18 _{Tradução livre do autor do original em língua inglesa. We come then to the question: what accommodations for recreation}

can we provide which shall be so agreeable and so accessible as to be efficiently attractive to the great body of citizens, and which, while giving decided gratification, shall also cause those who resort to them for pleasure to subject themselves, for the time being, to conditions strongly counteractive to the special enervating conditions of the town? (Idem, p. 17).

19 _{Tradução livre do autor do original em língua inglesa. Although these advocates may have created and effectively applied}

theories about the restorative effects of natural environments, their theorizing lacked scientific grounds in the sense of well- structured, valid empirical evidence of the relations proposed. Olmsted provides a good example in this respect. (HARTIG,

2007, p.165)

20 _{Tradução livre do autor do original em língua inglesa. One will include all of which the predominating influence is to}

stimulate exertion of any part or parts needing it; the other, all which cause us to receive pleasure without conscious exertion. Games chiefly of mental skill, as chess, or athletic sports, as baseball, are examples of means of recreation of the first class, which may be termed that of exertive recreation; music and the fine arts generally of the second or receptive division (ib., p. 17).

21 _{Tradução livre do autor do original em língua inglesa. Olmsted understands “receptive” recreation to be of two types:}

pastoral settings, and “gregarious” or group activities of strangers centered primarily around promenading along shaded

paths with well-planned vistas (TWOMBLY, 2010, p. 201).

22 _{Tradução livre do autor do original em língua inglesa. We want a ground to which people may easily go after their day's}

work is done, and where they may stroll for an hour, seeing, hearing, and feeling nothing of the bustle and jar of the streets, where they shall, in effect, find the city put far away from them (OLMSTED, 1870, p.18).

23 _{Tradução livre do autor do original em língua inglesa. Nature contact improves self-esteem and mood among people}

exercising in green environments. This holds especially true for the mentally ill as well as for people diagnosed with major depressive disorder. Mental health benefits also extend to cognition, where studies show increased memory and attention; improved concentration among the elderly; and increased attentional functioning among various demographic groups including women newly diagnosed with breast cancer, as well as children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and attention deficit disorder. (EISENMAN, 2013, p. 291)

24 _{Tradução livre do autor do original em língua inglesa. Climate change comes draped in claims of apocalypse, national}

mission, and Market-friendly technological optimism – a culturally overdetermined phenomenon if ever we have faced one. Which accounts will prevail is partly a political choice, one made of old materials in new circumstances. The choice will be the work of the next generation of the cultural innovation, political argument, and social movements that have produced American environmental public language so far. (PURDY, 2010, p. 1209)