State of the Art: Interlanguage Phonology
-F a c to rs a n d P rocesses In th e D ev elo pm ent o f a
S eco nd L a n g u a g e P h o n o lo g y
K evin J o h n K eys
U n iv e rs id a d e F e d e ra l d e M in a s G e rais
O p r e s e n t e a rt ig o v i s a a r e s u m ir a s p r in c ip a is q u e s tõ e s v in c u la d a s à p e s q u i s a n a á r e a d e f o n o lo g i a i n te r lin g u a l, is to é, o d e s e n v o lv im e n to d e h a b i l id a d e s f o n o ló g ic a s d e u m a s e g u n d a l ín g u a . O s f a to r e s e n v o lv id o s n e s te d e s e n v o l v i m e n to s ã o a d u m b r a d o s e o s p r o c e s s o s s u b ja c e n te s s ã o d e s c r i to s . O s p o s s ív e is c a m in h o s p a r a p e s q u is a s f u tu r a s s ã o d e li n e a d o s .
[Gileadite challenge to an Ephramite fugitive] ‘A rt thou an Ephram ite?’ I f he say ‘N a y ’; then they said unto him, ‘Say now “Shibboleth ” and he said. uSibboleth fo r he could not fram e to pronounce it tight. Then they took him and slew him at the passages o f the Jordan: and there fe ll at that time o f the Ephramites forty and two thousand. Judges, 12:6 (Authorised (King James) Bible, 1612)1
In tr o d u c tio n
I t is fo rtu n a te ly ra re n o w a d a y s f o r a p ro n u n c ia tio n e rro r to h a v e fatal
c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r th e sp ea k e r, a n d a lth o u g h m a n y fo reig n lea rn e rs tra v e llin g to a n E n g lis h -s p e a k in g c o u n try h a v e e x p e r ie n c e d a re a c tio n to th e ir a c c e n t
w h ic h h a s v e r g e d on th e h o m ic id a l, it s e e m s s afe to say th a t w e a re m o v in g
to w ard s m o re to lera n t an d fle x ib le attitu d es in relatio n to th e sp o k en lan g u ag e.
T h e a p p e a r a n c e o f s e v e ra l w o rk s o v e r th e p a s t d e c a d e h a v e p o in te d in th is direction, w h ic h is c h arac teris ed e s sen tially b y the d e-cen tring o f th e la n g u a g e stan d a rd s a u th o ritie s , o r in o th e r w o rd s , th e d e c lin e o f th e im p o rta n c e o f th e
‘n a tiv e - s p e a k e r ’. T h e w o r k o f P h illip s o n (1 9 9 2 ), H o llid a y (1 9 9 4 ) a n d P e n n y c o o k (1 9 9 8 ) offers a ren o v ated v e rsio n o f th e relations b e tw e e n sp eak ers
1 5 6 R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g ü í s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2001
o f E n g lis h o u tsid e th e ‘E n g lis h as a n L I* c e n tre a n d th e s p e a k ers o f E n g lis h as a n L I . C ry stal (1 9 9 7 ) an d M c A rth u r (1 9 9 8 ) rev e al the e x te n t o f th e c h a n g e s th a t are ta k in g p la c e in th e v e r y titles o f th e ir b o o k s : re sp e c tiv e ly ,
E n g lish as a G lobal L a ngu age a n d T he E nglish L a ng uag es. In te rm s o f the m o s t c o n c r e te f e a tu re th a t s ig n ifies d iffe r e n c e - a c c e n t - th is te n d e n c y c u lm in a tes logically in th e m o v em e n t to w a rd s the co n c ep t o f ‘teach ing E n g lish
as a n In te rn a tio n a l L a n g u a g e (T B IL ), a n d J e n k in s (2 0 0 0 ) (The P h on o lo g y o f E n g lish as an Intern atio nal L angu ag e) is th e m o st d e ta ile d s e ttin g o u t o f the p r in c ip le s in v o lv e d , w ith re fe re n ce to p h o n o lo g y , in this area. H e r p o le m ic is in re la tio n to the p ed a g o g ic failure in E L T to ad a p t sufficiently to th e c h a n g in g
r e a litie s o f E n g lish in th e w o rld a n d to d e v e lo p m e th o d o lo g ic a l p a ra d ig m s th a t e n c o m p a s s th e n e w tru th s a b o u t u s e rs o f E n g lish an d th e ir n e e d s , an d w ith r e g a r d to th e o u tm o d e d n e s s o f m o s t e v a lu a tiv e c rite ria f o r te a c h in g p ro n u n cia tio n :
T h e o n ly r e a lly s u rp r is in g e l e m e n t . . . is th e r e la ti v e f a ilu r e o f E n g lis h L a n g u a g e T e a c h in g (E L T ) p e d a g o g y . . . to a d ju s t its m e th o d o lo g ie s in lin e w ith th is c h a n g in g p a tt e r n s , i n w h i c h t h e g o a l o f le a r n in g is m o r e o f te n to b e a b le to u s e E n g lis h a s a l i n g u a f r a n c a in c o m m u n ic a tio n w ith o th e r ‘n o n - n a tiv e s p e a k e r s ', i.e . a s a n in te r n a tio n a l la n g u a g e , th a n a s a f o re ig n l a n g u a g e in c o m m u n ic a tio n w i t h its ‘n a tiv e s p e a k e r s ’ . (J e n k in s 2 0 0 0 :1)
In t e r n s o f p e d a g o g ic p ra c tice , th e n , this is th e b a c k g ro u n d to stu d ies in in te rla n g u a g e p h o n o lo g y : th e re la tio n s b e tw e e n L 2 s p e a k ers o f E n g lish a n d th e p ara m e te rs w ith in w h ic h th e s e s p e a k e rs m u st o p e ra te to m a in ta in a
s u fficien tly effectiv e lev e l o f m u tu a l intelligibility.
O th e r c o n c e rn s th a t a re r e la te d to in te rla n g u a g e p h o n o lo g y s tu d ies in c lu d e to p ics th at a re re le v a n t f o r lin g u is tic s in g en e ral, th a t o ffe r in sig h ts in to th e la r g e r p ro c e s s e s in v o lv e d in s e c o n d la n g u a g e a c q u isitio n (S L A ) an d th a t r a is e q u e s tio n s o f la n g u a g e d e v e lo p m e n t in g e n e ral fro m th e p o in t o f v ie w o f affect, c o g n itio n an d th e w id e r q u e s tio n s o f p h o n o lo g ic a l theory.
T h is p a p e r is an a tte m p t to p r o v id e a n o v e rv ie w o f c u rre n t th in k in g in in te rla n g u a g e p h o n o lo g y , an d to s h o w its p rin c ip a l te n d e n c ie s in te rm s o f fu tu r e re s e a rc h a n d its c o n n e c tiv ity w ith a p p lie d lin g u istics.
E a r ly c o n c e p ts o f th e
interlanguage
T h e te rm ‘in te rla n g u a g e ’ (IL ) f ir s t a ro s e fro m th e w o rk o f S e lin k e r
la n g u a g e le a r n e r s d u rin g th e p r o c e s s o f ta r g e t la n g u a g e (T L ) a c q u isitio n . O th e r te rm s , s u c h as ‘ap p ro x im a tiv e s y s te m ' (N e m s e r 1971) a n d ‘tra n sitio n al
c o m p e te n c e ’ (C o r d e r 19 6 7 ) e x is te d b u t d id n o t p rev ail. T h e te rm h a s b e e n
u n s ta b le in its ap p lica tio n , s o m e tim e s re fe r r in g £o the a c q u isitio n o f s e c o n d
la n g u a g e s in g en e ral.
T h e te r m ‘in terlan g u a g e ’ can b e seen to ap p ly in tw o cases: synchronic, o r th e s ta te o f a le a r n e r ’s s y s te m at a g iv e n p o in t in tim e; a n d diachro nic, m e a n in g th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f in te rm e d ia te s y s te m s o v e r tim e . T h e IL c an b e
se en as a v a r ia b le p o in t a lo n g a c o n tin u u m b e tw e e n th e n ativ e la n g u a g e (N L )
an d th e ta rg e t la n g u a g e (T L ), w h ile b e in g d is tin c t fro m b o th o f th e se . T h e IL
d ev e lo p s o v e r tim e as th e le a rn e r rec e iv e s in p u t fro m th e T L an d m o d ifie s th e
IL a c c o rd in g to th is in fo rm a tio n . T h e id e a th a t th e d e v e lo p m e n t is lin e a r a n d p ro g re s s iv e is m isle a d in g , as a t v a rio u s p o in ts in this d e v e lo p m e n t th e le a rn e r m ay p r e s u m e th a t featu re s o f th e T L ta k e a s p e cific fo rm w h e n in fa c t th e ru le (as it w e re ) is a p p lic a b le o n ly u n d e r c e rta in c o n s train ts. O r i t m a y b e th a t the
in p u t is m isin te rp rete d (either in th e lig h t o f th e N L o r in m istak en a ssu m p tio n s ab o u t th e T L ) s u c h that, a t th a t p a rtic u lar p o in t, th e IL p rese n ts an u n o rth o d o x v e rsio n o f th e T L .
S e c o n d la n g u a g e le a rn in g is c h a ra c te r is e d b y th e p h e n o m e n o n o f
fo ssiliz a tio n, o r a s ta te in w h ic h th e I L h a s b e c o m e stab ilis ed an d s h o w s no d ev e lo p m e n t o f specific a sp ects in th e d ire c tio n o f a m o re T L -lik e p ro d u c tio n . T h is m a y b e th e resu lt o f v ario u s facto rs, in c lu d in g the c o m m u n ic ativ e success o f th e le a rn e r, w h e n fu rth e r le a rn in g is n o lo n g e r re q u ire d g iv e n th e f a c t th a t
c o m m u n ic a tio n is tak in g p lace. L a te r s tu d ie s a rg u e d th a t N L /T L sim ilaritie s (in term s o f th e o v erlap p in g aco u stic s p a c e fo r certain p h o n e m es, fo r e x am p le)
m e a n t th a t th e le a rn e r c a n n o t m a k e th e a d ju s tm e n t to a c lo s e r a p p ro x im a tio n
b e c a u s e o f th e d o m in a n t in flu e n c e o f th e N L ru le s. F o ss iliz a tio n d o e s n o t o c c u r in fir s t la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n (F L A ), w h ic h is th e re fo re s e e n to b e a
d iffe re n t c o g n itiv e p ro c e s s f ro m th a t o f L 2 a cq u isitio n .
I L a s r u le - g o v e rn e d b e h a v io u r
A d je m ia n (1976) arg u e d th a t IL w a s a se t o f sy stem atically d ev e lo p e d
rules, an a rg u m e n t that w as reinfo rced b y D ic k e rso n ’s (1974) study o f Jap a n e se le a rn e rs o f E n g lis h (se e b elo w ). A d je m ia n s ta te d th a t th e I L g r a m m a r w a s
1 5 8 R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g O i s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . I , n . l , 2 0 0 1
sta tes o f a le a rn e r’s d ev e lo p in g IL to s ee w h a t u n d erly in g rules w e re g o v e rn in g th e v a r ia b le p ro d u c tio n a t d iffe re n t s ta g e s . A n a ly s is o f le a rn e r p ro d u c tio n
th e n b e c a m e n o t a q u e s tio n o f erro r analysis b u t o f variability an alysis, re q u irin g th e study o f larg e am ounts o f d a ta that m ig h t th ro w u p the reg u larities
in h e r e n t in the IL o f a g iv e n learn e r o f la n g u a g e A w h e n le a rn in g la n g u a g e B . T h e c o n te x t is sig n ific a n t, sin ce th e p ro b le m s in v o lv e d in th e m o v e a lo n g th e
c o n tin u u m fro m A to B w ill b e c o n d itio n e d b y th e lin g u istic re la tio n s ex istin g
b e tw e e n th e se tw o la n g u a g es . T h a t is, f o r e x a m p le , th e fo rm s o f ‘tra n s f e r ’
th a t m a y o c c u r w ill d e p e n d on the e x is te n c e , o r o th e rw ise , o f c o m p a ra b le , o r
c o m p e tin g , fe a tu re s in th e tw o la n g u a g e s . W o rd o rd e r ru le s fro m G e rm a n ,
say, m a y b e re ta in e d in learn ers a c q u irin g E n g lis h b e c a u s e E n g lish a llo w s fo r a p p a re n t o rd e r flex ib ility (even th o u g h v io la tin g g ram m a tica l ru le s), w h e rea s
th e in c lu s io n o f p a r tic le m a rk ers (na in J a p a n e s e fo r e x am p le ) is u n lik e ly to o c c u r b e tw e e n la n g u a g e s w h e r e th e T L h a s n o m e c h a n is m f o r s u c h a p r o c e d u re to m a n ife s t its e lf (A d je m ia n , op.cit. p a ssim).
A
third approach
T a ro n e (1 9 7 9 ) sees the IL as a s e t o f sty les th a t a re d e p e n d e n t on
c o n te x t o f u se. T h e re s e a rc h s h o w s th a t th e s y ste m a tic v a ria b ility o f IL
u s a g e is re la te d to (1 ) th e lin g u istic c o n te x t a n d (2 ) th e n a tu re o f th e ta s k
in v o lv e d f o r e licitatio n p u rp o ses . T a ro n e re la te d v a riab ility to th e a tten tio n
th e le a r n e r p a y s to p ro d u c tio n : s h e id e n tif ie d a s ta b le s u b o rd in a te s ty le fre e
o f L I in flu e n c e w h ic h w a s on a c o n tin u u m w ith a s u p e ro rd in a te s ty le w h ic h
re fle c te d g re a te r a tte n tio n to p r o d u c tio n a n d th e n c e d e m o n s tra te d g re a te r
L I in flu e n c e , p ro b a b ly b ec a u s e o f a d e c r e a s e in au tom aticity . T h e q u e s tio n
h e re is o n e o f m o n ito rin g , in the K ra sh e n (1 9 7 7 ) m o d e l: th e g re a te r th e d e g ree
o f m o n ito rin g (o r c o n s c io u s a tte n tio n to th e s tru c tu re o f th e la n g u a g e ) the
h ig h e r th e lik e lih o o d th a t the le a r n e r w o u ld re v e rt to lin g u istic k n o w le d g e
b a s e d o n th e N L , all o f w h ic h is a u to m a tis e d , a t th e e x p e n s e o f n o n -a u to m a tic
k n o w le d g e - o r a w a re n e s s - o f th e T L .
In u s in g th e T L , th e le a rn e r w ill p re fe r a s ty le s o m e w h e re b e tw e e n th e fo rm a l a n d the v e rn a c u la r an d w ill u s e a ra n g e o f c a te g o ric a l a n d v aria b le
ru les th a t reflect this ch o ice. A s th e le a rn e r sty le shifts to p ay in g m o re atten tio n
to la n g u a g e form , s o m e c a teg o rica l ru le s m a y b e c o m e m o re v a ria b le a n d
B o th T a ro n e a n d A d je m ia n a s s u m e d th a t th e IL is a n a tu ra l la n g u a g e ,
w ith th e s a m e u n iv e rs a l c o n stra in ts a n d s u b je c t to lin g u istic a n a ly s is in th e
s ta n d a rd w ay . T a ro n e a d d e d th e so cio lin g u is tic asp ect to A d je m ia n ’s v ersio n , a rg u in g th a t th e I L is a s e t o f s y s te m s th a t c h a n g e s a c c o rd in g to th e s o c ia l
c o n te x t o f th e s p e e c h e v en t. T h u s , T a ro n e ’s p o s itio n is s im ila r to S e lin k e r ’s
in so fa r as it p re su p p o s e s a s e t o f fle x ib le ru le s th a t are d y n a m ic a lly v ariab le.
Descriptive studies
In te rla n g u a g e s tu d ies in th e 1 9 7 0 s w e r e c o n fro n tin g th e p re v a ilin g
v iew s o n s e c o n d lan g u a g e learn in g , w h ic h w e r e p sy ch o lo g ica lly b e h a v io u ris t
a n d lin g u is tic a lly s tru ctu ral. R e s e a rc h in to I L g ra m m a rs , a n d th e a s se rtio n
th a t IL s w e r e n a tu ra l la n g u a g e s re p u d ia te d th e b e h a v io u ris t e m p h a s is on
e x te rn a l fa c to rs . T h e b e h a v io u r is t p o s itio n w a s o n e th a t s a w tra n s fe r as
fu n d a m e n ta l to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f IL : o ld h a b its in te rfe re d w ith n e w h a b its.
N e w re sea rch s h o w e d th at interference h a d a le ss significant ro le in this process.
T h e C o n tra stiv e A n aly s is H y p o th e s is (C A H ) w a s a im e d at p red ictin g ,
o n th e b a s is o f a lin g u is tic c o m p a ris o n o f th e g ra m m a rs o f th e la n g u a g e s in
q u estio n , w h a t w o u ld b e ea sy an d w h a t d iffic u lt in the acq u isitio n o f la n g u a g e
A b y a s p e a k e r o f la n g u a g e B . T h e C A H w a s s h o w n to b e fa llib le in this
stro n g fo rm b e c a u s e it o v erp red icted , an ticipating p ro b le m s w h e re n o n e c o u ld
b e s h o w n ; a n d u n d e rp re d ic te d , b y fa ilin g to e x p la in le a rn e r e rro rs th a t c o u ld
n o t b e seen a s th e re s u lt o f tra n s fe r b e tw e e n la n g u a g e s . T h e s e c o n c lu s io n s w e re d r a w n f ro m m o rp h e m e s tu d ies a n d e rro r an alysis.
Morpheme studies and error analysis
M o rp h e m e s tu d ies s h o w e d th a t c h ild re n L 2 le a rn e rs s e e m to a c q u ire
la n g u a g e in s im ila r sta g e s, re g a rd le s s o f th e ir e x p o s u re o r th e ir L I . T in s
p attern w a s s h o w n in a d u lt learn ers too. E rr o r analysis o f lea rn e rs’ p ro d u c tio n
s h o w e d th a t th e m a in in flu e n c e on p ro d u c tio n w as th e T L a n d n o t th e N L -
c h ild re n w e r e e v id e n c in g d e v e lo p m e n ta l e rro rs ra th e r th a n tra n s fe r e rro rs.
D e v e lo p m e n ta l e rro rs a re th o s e th a t a re s im ila r in k in d to th e e rro rs m a d e b y n a tiv e le a r n e rs o f th e T L , i.e. m o n o lin g u a l s p e a k e rs le a r n in g th e ir o w n
lan g u a g e. T h e sim ilarities seen in the m o rp h e m e stu d ies a cro ss lea rn e rs fro m different la n g u a g e b a c k g rou n d s a n d th e p red o m in a n ce o f d ev elop m en tal errors
1 6 0 R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g U i s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1
a c q u is itio n in th a t b o th p ro c e s se s in v o lv e d p o s s ib ly u n iv e rs a l lin g u is tic
o p e ra tio n s.
T h e se c o n c lu s io n s w ere c h a lle n g e d in the late 1970s. M o rp h e m e
s tu d ie s o f a m o re e x a c tin g k in d f o u n d in L 2 le a rn e rs th e k in d o f o rd e rs o f
a c q u is itio n th a t w e re c h a ra c te ris tic o f L 2 lea rn in g , r a th e r than b e in g s im ila r
to L I a c q u isitio n . M o rp h e m e s tu d ie s d id n o tr e f le c t an a c q u is itio n s e q u e n c e
b u t r a th e r th e a c c u ra c y o f use, b e c a u s e th e y m e a s u re u s ag e in elicited co n tex ts.
L o n g itu d in a l s tu d ie s - o f w h ich th e r e a re to o fe w in the w h o le ra n g e o f
r e s e a r c h in s e c o n d la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n - d e m o n s tra te d o th e r o rd e rs o f
a c q u is itio n w h ic h w e r e n o t c o rre late d w ith a c c u ra c y o f use.
E rro r a n a ly sis w as c h a lle n g e d b e c a u s e o f th e d ifficu lty in id e n tify in g
th e n a tu r e o f a n e rro r o r th e re a s o n w h y it is m a d e . (S c h a c h te r a n d C e lc e -
M u r c ia 1 977). T h e s a m e e rro r c a n b e a s s ig n e d to in tra lin g u a l fa c to rs
(p a ra llelin g d ev elo p m e n ta l m istak e s m a d e in F L A ) an d to in terlin g u al factors
w h ic h re fle c t th e in flu e n c e o f th e L I . S o m e e rro rs m a y b e the r e s u lt o f the
in te ra c tio n o f b o th th e s e factors. A n o th e r p ro b le m w ith e rro r a n a ly sis stu d ies
is th e ir c ro ss -s e c tio n a l n atu re: th ey lo o k at h e te ro g e n e o u s g ro u p s o f su b je c ts
s y n c h ro n ic a lly , r a th e r th a n g a th e rin g d a ta fro m a s m a ll g ro u p s o f s u b je c ts at
d iffe re n t m o m e n ts in th e ir a cq u isitio n . L o n g itu d in a l stu d ies w o u ld sh o w
w h a t k in d o f e rro rs a p p e a r at w h a t tim e s a n d w h ic h a re m o re lik e ly to p e rsis t
a n d f o r h o w lo n g . T h is w o u ld in d ic a te m o re p re c ise ly th e d y n a m ic n a tu re o f
t h e u n d e r ly in g I L g r a m m a r ( s ) a n d m a y le a d to in s ig h ts a b o u t h o w
d e v e lo p m e n ta l e rro rs c o m e to p r e d o m in a te o v e r tra n sfer e rro rs, as in the
o n to g e n e tic m o d el o f acq u isitio n d e s c rib e d b y M a jo r (1 9 8 7 ). T h is m o d e l (to
b e lo o k e d a t in d e ta il b elo w ) sees th e in c re a s e in k n o w le d g e o f th e T L as
h a v in g a g ra d u a lly g ro w in g effe c t o n th e in te rp re ta tio n o f n e w in fo rm a tio n
b y th e le a r n e r th ro u g h e x p o s u re to th e T L , a n d th u s s ees 't r a n s f e r ' as
s o m e th in g th a t c a n o c c u r at b o th e n d s o f th e N L - T L c o n tin u u m .
W h a t w a s n e e d e d w as re se a rc h in to the d y n a m ic q u alities o f la n g u a g e
c h a n g e th a t m a d e th e IL a u n iq u e (a n d fle x ib le ) sy stem , b o th s im ila r a n d d iffe re n t to th e N L a n d th e T L .
Recent developments in IL theory
C u rre n t in te re st in IL theory is fo c u s e d on qu estio n s o f h o w sy stem atic
th e EL is an d h o w v a ria b le ; h o w IL s a re a c q u ired ; a n d w h a t th e ro le is o f the
IL s y s te m s a re b y th e ir n a tu re d y n a m ic an d c h a n g e a b le . H o w e v e r,
re s e a rc h h a s fo c u s e d o n th e p r o d u c t a t g iv e n m o m e n ts in th e a c q u is itio n o f
th e T L . T h e n e e d fo r s tu d ie s w h ic h re fle c te d th is fa c t w a s fe lt a n d is still
re le v a n t to d a y . T h e C o n tra s tiv e A n a ly s is H y p o th e s is in its w e a k f o rm is
b e in g u s e d to u n d e r s ta n d th e n a tu re o f le a r n e r p ro d u c tio n a t g iv e n p o in ts in
th e a c q u is itio n p ro c e ss to s e e h o w e a c h le a r n e r d e m o n stra te s p a tte rn s o f
lin g u istic b e h a v io u r th a t a re c o m m o n to le a rn e rs o f a T L w h o h a v e a N L in
c o m m o n . I t is b y b a s in g re s e a rc h o n a c tu a l la n g u a g e o f lea rn e rs a n d c re a tin g
a d a ta b a s e o f in fo rm a tio n o n th e p a r a lle l e x p e rie n c e s o f th e se le a rn e rs th a t
w ill le a d to a b e tte r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e p ro c e s s in v o lv e d in S L A a n d th e
effe c t o f b o th th e N L a n d th e T L o n th e d y n a m ic s o f th e IL a t v a rio u s s tag e s
in la n g u a g e le a rn in g .
T h e r o le o f t h e f i r s t l a n g u a g e
T h e EL is s y ste m a tic a n d th e r e fo re c a n b e e x p lo re d as a d y n a m ic
p h e n o m e n o n : res e a rc h s h o w e d d iffe re n c e w ith in in d iv id u als (as c o m p e te n c e
flu c tu a te d w h ile th e le a rn e r d is tin g u is h e d v ario u s fo rm -fu n c tio n o p e ra tio n s )
an d b e tw e e n s u b je c ts (b e c a u s e o f th e ir d iffe re n t L i s ) . H o w d o e s th e L I
in flu e n c e th e IL ?
T h e f a c t th a t a f o r m o c c u rs in b o th N L a n d T L is n o g u a ra n te e th a t
tra n s fe r w ill ta k e p la c e . P ro d u c t- o r ie n te d a n a ly sis is th e re fo re in s u ffic ie n t as
a re s e a rc h m e th o d o lo g y . S p e a k e rs o f F in n is h , J a p a n e s e a n d G e r m a n L i s
h a v e b e e n s h o w n to a c q u ire fu n c tio n s a t th e s a m e ra te (K e lle r-C o h e n 1979);
h o w ev er, th e ac q u isitio n o f y es /n o q u e s tio n s w a s slo w er in the F in n ish speaker,
b e c a u s e o f a d iffe re n c e in L 1 /L 2 s tru c tu re s . T h u s , th e re s u lt w a s th e s a m e
b u t th e p r o c e s s w a s d iffe re n t b e c a u s e o f L I d ifferen ces.
T h a t d e v e lo p m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s a r e d iff e r e n t b e c a u s e o f L 1 /L 2
d iffe ren ce s is e v id e n c e d b y th e fa c t th a t s p e a k e rs o f s o m e N L s ta k e lo n g e r to
a c q u ire c o n tr o l o v e r c e rta in fo rm s th a n s p e a k e rs o f o th e r N L s b e c a u s e th e ir
N L h a v e s im ila r fo rm s - th a t is, s im ila rity to th e N L d e la y s th e a c q u is itio n
p ro c e s s. S c h u m a n n (1 9 7 9 ) s h o w e d th a t n o + verb fo rm s a re m o re d iffic u lt to e lim in a te f ro m th e I L o f S p a n is h s p e a k e rs th an f o rm th e IL s o f o th e r
162 R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g ü í s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1
I n te r la n g u a g e p h o n o lo g y a n d la n g u a g e tr a n s f e r
The Phonology of Interlanguage: processes and constraints
T a ro n e (1 9 8 7 ) e x p la in s th a t in e a r lie r s tu d ies , th e q u e s tio n o f th e
in flu e n c e o f th e L I o n L 2 a c q u is itio n o f p h o n o lo g ic a l sk ills w a s c o n s id e re d
p a r a m o u n t an d a c o n tra s tiv e a n a ly s is b e tw e e n th e L I a n d th e L 2 w o u ld b e
s u ff ic ie n t to p re d ic t a n d h e n c e av o id e rro rs d u rin g a c q u isitio n . T h e p r o b le m
f o r th e le a r n e r w as th e s im p le o n e o f u s in g n ativ e la n g u a g e (N L ) s o u n d s
w h e n p ro d u c in g th e ta r g e t la n g u a g e (T L ), o r negative transfer. T h is c a n b e e x e m p lifie d in th e fo llo w in g table:
Table 1
n a tiv e la n g u a g e
t a r g e t la n g u a g e
(1) Itl
ft/
(2)
m
lm
/v /
J
—
( 3 ) /I / I IV
[ i r l
F r o m T a r o n e ( 1 9 8 7 : 7 1 )
In (1) w e h a v e th e p o te n tial fo r p o sitive transfer, sin ce b o th lan g u a g e s in c lu d e th e p h o n e m e It/ in th e ir in v e n to rie s , le a d in g u s to e x p e c t th a t lea rn e rs w o u ld h a v e n o tro u b le in p ro d u c in g th a t s o u n d in th e ta rg e t lan g u ag e.
I n (2), w e h a v e w h a t m ig h t b e te r m e d convergent negative transfer.
w h e re th e L I h a s tw o p h o n e m e s , I ff a n d /v /, th e ta rg e t la n g u a g e re g a rd s th e s e a s allo p h o n ic v a ria tio n s o f If/. A n a llo p h o n e is a v a ria tio n in th e p r o n u n c ia tio n o f a s o u n d th a t d o es n o t a f fe c t th e m e a n in g o f a w o rd : fo r e x a m p le th e first s o u n d in p it c a n b e a s p ira te d o r n o t a n d th e u s e o f the a s p ira te d o r the n o n -a s p ira te d v a ria tio n m a k e s n o d iffe re n c e to th e m e a n in g .
S o, th e situ a tio n in (2 ) is th a t in o n e la n g u a g e th e d iffe re n c e is im p o rta n t a n d in th e o th e r it is n o t; b u t f o r th e le arn er, th e tw o s o u n d s e x ist a n d a re e a s y to tra n s f e r f ro m o n e to th e other.
o f ill f o r it! s u b stitu tio n b y J a p a n e s e L I s p e a k e rs le a rn in g E n g lis h (g iv in g [la iz ] f o r / i a i z / <rise>). T h e s e a re th e r e f o r e lik ely to b e in te rp re te d as a llo p h o n e s b y th e learn er, w h e n in fa c t th e y re p re s e n t d istin c tiv e fe a tu re s a n d
m a k e a d iffe re n c e to th e m e a n in g o f w h a t is said.
F u r th e r re s e a rc h in th is a re a h a s s h o w e d th a t c o n tra stiv e a n a ly s is is
n o t s u ff ic ie n t f o r p re d ic tin g le a r n e r p e r fo r m a n c e on s p e c ific ta s k s o f L 2 p ro d u c tio n . I n th e first p la c e , te sts o n th e p ro d u c tio n o f is o la te d p h o n e m e s
a re n o t s u b tle e n o u g h to ta k e in to a c c o u n t th e in flu e n c e o f s u p ra s e g m e n ta l
features o n o ra l p ro d u ctio n . F o r ex a m p le, in a n analysis o f sp e ak ers o f E n g lish
as a n L I le a r n in g A ra b ic , it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t th a t th e d is tr ib u tio n o f th e
p h o n e m e in th e sy llab le a ffe c te d le a rn e rs ’ ab ility to co n tro l th e s o u n d in o th e r
s y lla b le p o s itio n s (B rie re 1 9 6 6 , in T a ro n e 1987).
F u r th e r s tu d ie s re p o rte d b y T a ro n e s h o w e d th a t p e rc e p tio n w a s a
c ru c ia l f a c to r in in flu e n c in g le a r n e rs ’ o u tp u t. C o n tra s tiv e a n a ly s is w a s n o t
ab le to p re d ic t w ith an y a c c u ra c y le a rn e rs ’ e rro rs in th e L I - L 2 c o n fro n tatio n . N o n e o f th e rese a rch re v ie w e d b y T a ro n e u tilized s p o n ta n e o u s s p e ec h
a s d ata; th e ta s k s w e re m a in ly fo c u s e d o n p e r c e p tio n a n d c o n c e n tra te d on
w o rd s a n d s o u n d s in is o la tio n . T h is ig n o re d th e fa c t th a t in te rla n g u a g e
p h o n o lo g y (IL P ) is s e n sitiv e to c o n te x t: th e c o m m u n ic a tiv e s itu a tio n (th e to p ic , th e in te r lo c u to r re la tio n s, th e d e g re e o f fo rm a lity ) h a s a fu n d a m e n ta l
effect o n th e k in d o f sp eech p ro d u c tio n th a t su b jec ts d e m o n strate a n d th erefo re re s e a r c h s h o u ld b e b a s e d o n s p o n ta n e o u s s p e e c h data.
O n th e o th e r h a n d , W h ite (1 9 8 9 ) a rg u e s th a t th e re is a te n d e n c y fo r
learn e rs to u s e a v o id a n c e tac tics f o r c e rta in s tru c tures, so w e n e e d to d isc o v e r w h e th e r le a rn e rs are a v o id in g c e rta in p h o n e m e s b e c a u se th ey d o n ’t lik e them
an d n o t fa ilin g to p r o d u c e th e m b e c a u s e th e y c a n n o t, n o t h a v in g a c q u ire d
th e m y e t. T h e im p lic a tio n o f th is is th a t re s e a r c h m u s t a t s o m e p o in t e m p lo y
task s th a t a re d e s ig n e d to e lic it s p e c ific p h o n e m e s fro m th e s u b je c ts th a t th e y
m a y o th e r w is e n o t u s e f o r f e a r o f th e ir la c k o f c o m p e te n c e . A c o m b in a tio n o f s p o n ta n e o u s s p e a k in g ta s k s a n d d ire c te d e lic itatio n ta s k s a re th e re fo re
re q u ire d i f th e re s e a rc h is to g e n e ra te d a ta th a t is b r o a d e n o u g h b a s e d to b e
relev an t.
D ic k e r s o n ’s (1 9 7 4 ) s tu d y o f a J a p a n e s e sp e a k e r s h o w e d th a t p ro g re s s
is m e a s u re d b y in c re a s in g a p p ro x im a tio n o f th e I L P v a ria n ts to L I n o r m s m th eir resp e c tiv e linguistic environm ent. T h e I L P is essentially a v ariab le system : it v aries o v e r tim e, as c o n tro l o v e r th e T L p h o n o lo g y im p ro v e s w ith p ra c tice ;
1 6 4 R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g ü í s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1
o u tp u t o f th e in te rla n g u a g e p h o n o lo g y . P ro fic ie n c y w a s s e e n to b e h ig h e r in
w o r d li s t re a d in g th a n in d ia lo g u e re a d in g , w h ic h in tu rn w a s b e tte r th a n fre e
s p e e c h (s e e T aro n e 1 9 8 7 :7 7 ). B e in g a w a r e o f th is v a ria b ility is e s se n tia l if
w e a r e to u n d e rsta n d th e p ro c e s s e s in v o lv e d in d e v e lo p in g an in te rla n g u a g e p h o n o lo g ic a l system : n e g a tiv e tra n sfe r f ro m th e L I , d ev e lo p m en tal p ro c e s s es
th at a r e in trinsic to t h e L l , o v er-generalization, ap p ro x im atio n a n d the in h e ren t d iff ic u lty o f the T L p h o n e m e in v en tory .
A t th e le v e l o f th e sy llab le, T a ro n e ’s o w n re s e a rc h c o n c lu d e s th a t
(fo llo w in g D ic k e rso n ) fav o u rab le p h o n o lo g ic a l e n v iro n m e n ts m a y b e d u e to tra n s f e r e ffe c ts (th e e x is te n c e o f s im ila r e n v iro n m e n ts in th e N L ) o r to u n i
v e rs a l e ffe c ts , su c h as th e fa c t th at th e r e m a y e x is t a u n iv e rsa l p h y s io lo g ic a l
c o n s tra in t w h e reb y the articulators te n d to w a rd s the re st positio n . F o r tra n sfe r e ffe c ts to o p e ra te a t th e le v e l o f th e s y lla b le , w e w o u ld e x p e c t to s e e th e
s y lla b le s tru c tu re o f th e N L tra n sfe rre d to th e T L , s o N L s w ith V C -ty p e
s y lla b le s tru ctures w o u ld ten d to re d u c e T L s y lla b le s to a sim ilar V C fo rm . A
f u rth e r a s p e c t o f this p ro c e s s w o u ld b e th e re a c tiv a tio n o f L I le a rn in g p r o c es se s : t h e s im p lific a tio n o f sy lla b les th a t o c c u rs in L I a c q u is itio n w o u ld b e r e p e a te d d u r in g L 2 le arn in g .
H o w e v e r, as O ile r ’s (19 7 4 ) r e s e a r c h d e m o n s tra te d , L I a n d L 2 p r o
c e sse s a re u n alik e. Y o u n g lea rn ers o f L I E n g lis h w ill u s e s trate g ie s s u c h as clu ster red u c tion , final c o n so n an t d eletio n a n d w e a k syllable deletion (aphesis).
O n th e o th e r h an d , L 2 le a rn e rs w ill u s e e p e n th e s is r a th e r th an e ith e r c lu s te r re d u c tio n (tree [tori:] ra th e r than [ti:]) o r fin a l c o n s o n a n t d e le tio n (big
[b igu] r a th e r th a n [bi]), a n d w ill te n d n o t to s h o w w e a k s y llab le d e letio n .
E p e n th e s is is fa v o u re d b y L 2 learn ers, w h e re d e letio n is u s e d b y L I learn e rs .
T h is d e le tio n co u ld b e a q u e s tio n o f tra n sfer, b u t T a ro n e p refe rs a u n iv e rs a l fe a tu re h y p o th e s is w h ic h s tates th a t th e C V s y lla b le m a y b e ‘a u n iv e rsa l
a rtic u la to ry a n d p e rc e p tu a l u n it s u c h th a t th e a rtic u la to rs te n d to o p e ra te in
b asic C V p ro g ra m s in a ll la n g u a g e s ’ (T aro n e 19 8 7 :7 8 ). T h is h y p o th e sis fo u n d
s o m e lim ite d s u p p o rt in B e n s o n ’s (1 9 8 8 ) p a p e r, w h ic h e m p h a s is e d th e im p o rta n c e o f v o ca lic c o n te x t, s ta tin g th a t ‘u n iv e rs a l p re fe re n c e f o r a n o p e n
s y lla b le d o e s p la y a ro le , a lb e it m ino r, in s h a p in g IL p h o n o lo g y in d e p e n d e n t o f th e p r o c e s s o f N L tra n sfe r.’ (B e n so n 1 9 8 8 :2 3 2 ).
T h e q u e s tio n o f a v o id a n c e is a ls o c ru c ia l to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f in te rla n g u a g e p h o n o lo g ie s . C e lc e - M u rc ia ’s (1 9 7 7 ) o b se rv a tio n s o f a c h ild
le a rn e r s h o w e d th a t th e le a r n e r h a d a p re fe r e n c e f o r s o u n d s th a t w e r e e a s ie r b e tw e e n th e tw o lan g u a g e s to w h ich s h e w a s s im u lta n e o u s ly e x p o s e d . T h is
s h o w e d a p r e f e r e n c e fo r couteau o v e r knife irre sp e c tiv e o f w h ic h c o d e w a s in u s e a t th e tim e (T aro n e, 1 9 8 7 :79 ). T h u s p h y sio lo g ic a l c o n s tra in ts (th e
re la tiv e p h y s ic a l d iffic u lty o f p r o d u c in g c e r ta in s o u n d s) p ro v o k e d a le a r n in g stra te g y o f a v o id a n c e to s h a p e th e in te rla n g u a g e p h o n o log y .
W ith re fe re n c e to p ro s o d ic fe a tu re s , T a ro n e a g ain a c k n o w le d g e s th a t
m o re th a n j u s t tra n s fe r p ro c e s s e s a re in v o lv e d . B a c k m a n ’s (1 9 7 7 ) s tu d y o f
S p an ish s p e a k e rs le a rn in g E n g lis h a n a ly s e d th e e rro rs in in to n a tio n (e rro r w h ich m a d e u p 7 8 % o f th e ir o ral p ro d u c tio n ) a n d fo u n d th a t th e fe a tu re s
w h ic h c h a r a c te r is e d th e e rro rs ( s m a lle r p itc h ra n g e , a h ig h e r p itc h f o r
u n s tre ss e d s y lla b le s , fo r e x a m p le ) w e r e n o t a ttrib u ta b le to tra n s f e r effec ts. T o s u m m a r iz e , T a ro n e ’s (1 9 8 7 ) r e v ie w o f th e c u rre n t k n o w le d g e in
in te rla n g u a g e p h o n o lo g y id e n tifie d th e f o llo w in g p ro c e s se s a n d c o n s tra in ts
as o p e ra tin g in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f L 2 IL P s:
P rocesses
o n e g a tiv e tra n s f e r f ro m N L o L I a c q u is itio n p ro c e s s e s
• o v e rg e n e ra liz a tio n • a p p ro x im a tio n
© a v o id a n c e
C onstraints
• in h e re n t d iffic u lty o f T L so u n d s an d p h o n o lo g ic a l
c o n te x ts
® te n d e n c y o f a rtic u la to rs to re s t p o sitio n
a te n d e n c y o f a rtic u la to rs to a C V p a ttern
o te n d e n c y to a v o id ex tt'em es o f p itc h v a ria tio n
© e m o tio n a l a n d s o c ia l co n strain ts
(T aro n e 1 9 8 7 :7 9 )
Fossilization
T h e o th e r k e y is s u e th a t T a ro n e id e n tifie s as re le v a n t fo r IL P s tu d ies
is th a t o f fo s siliz a tio n . T h e q u es tio n s a re w h e th e r fo ssiliza tio n is in e v ita b le in th e p ro c e s s o f L 2 a cq u isitio n ; a n d w h a t a re th e c au ses o f fo s s iliz a tio n ?
F o s s iliz a tio n s h o u ld a d d itio n a lly b e s e e n as d e riv in g fro m c u ltu ra l
1 6 6 R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g i i i s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1
o f W e s te r n cu ltu re. In o th e r c u ltu ra l c o n te x ts , th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f n a tiv e -lik e
flu e n c y a m o n g st le a rn e rs w h o b e g a n to s tu d y th e T L after p u b e rty is co m m o n .
H ill’s (1 9 7 0 ) s tu d y o f p eo p les in th e A m a z o n a n d in N e w G u in e a fo u n d a d u lts w h o a c h ie v e d n a tiv e -lik e p r o n u n c ia tio n c o m p e te n c e in s e v e ra l L 2 s .
T h e s e fin d in g s h a v e n o t b e e n c o n firm e d .
T a ro n e m a in ta in s th a t it is n o t p o s s ib le to an a ly s e th e re la tiv e effe c ts o f la n g u a g e tra n s fe r o n p ro n u n c ia tio n a s c o m p a re d w ith s y n ta x a n d lex is
(T a ro n e, 1 9 8 7 :81 ). F o ss iliz a tio n m a y b e a m a tte r o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l h a b it f o rm a tio n w h ich , c o m b in e d w ith la n g u a g e tra n sfer, m a k e th e in te rla n g u a g e p h o n o lo g y re s is ta n t to ch a n g e.
C o n tin u in g w ith th e c u ltu ra l in flu e n c e o n L 2 a c q u is itio n c rite ria , fo ss iliz a tio n m a y b e a s so c ia ted w ith a n e s se n tia l la c k o f e m p a th y w ith th e T L a n d th e T L cu lture . T h is , to g e th er w ith e m o tio n a l a n d a ffe ctiv e c o n s tra in ts,
m a y le a d to a c q u is itio n re a c h in g a c e rta in p o in t a n d n o t p r o g re s s in g farth e r. A d u lts h a v e m o re r ig id la n g u a g e “e g o b o u n d a r ie s ” an d u s e th e ir a c c e n t to id e n tify th e m se lv e s a p p ro p riately . A c h a lle n g e to this a c c e n t is a c h a lle n g e to th e in d iv id u a l's id e n tity a n d h e n c e is re s is te d b y s o m e learn e rs . H o w e v e r, s o c io -e m o tio n a l fa c to rs are h a rd to m e a s u re u n d e r res e a rc h c o n d itio n s o r in e x p e rim e n ta l settin g s.
The Ontogenetic Model
M a jo r ’s (1 9 8 7 ) stu d y p re s e n ts a s im p le m o d e l f o r in te rla n g u a g e p h o n o lo g y th a t ta k e s in to c o n s id e ra tio n th e fa c to rs d e a lt w ith b y T a ro n e (1 9 8 7 ) a n d the critica l p e rio d h y p o thesis. W h a t w e h a v e b een ca lling lan g u ag e tra n sfe r, M a jo r k n o w s as ‘in te rfe re n c e ’2 a n d re c o g n is e s its lo w p r e d ic tiv e p o w e r. H is o n to g e n e tic m o d e l is d e s ig n e d to c o m p e n s a te fo r th e fa c t th a t L 2
p h o n o lo g ic a l s tu d ie s (u p to th a t p o in t) h a d fo c u se d on e rro r s o u rc e s b u t w ith o u t p a y in g a tte n tio n to the re a s o n s f o r stag es o f a cq u isitio n . T h is m o d e l a tte m p ts to articulate th e relatio n sh ip b e tw e e n interferen ce an d d e v elo p m e n tal fa c to rs.
M a jo r ’s b a s ic p re m is e is th a t in te rfe re n ce p ro c esse s affect e a rly stages
o f a c q u is itio n a n d d e c re a s e w ith tim e , w h ile d e v e lo p m e n ta l p ro c e s s e s b e g in as in fre q u e n t, in c re a s e in fre q u e n c y o v e r tim e an d th en fall aw ay . T h is is a n
a b s tra c t a c c o u n t, n o t b a s e d o n n u m e ric a l d ata. In d iv id u a l d iffe re n c e s in th e tim e p e r io d a n d th e c ro s s o v e r p o in t w ill v ary . F o s s iliza tio n m a y o c c u r a t an y
stage. M a jo r d e s c rib e s h is m o d e l th u s:
A t an early stage o f acquisition, interference processes dom inate at the expense o f developm ental processes. A s acquisition proceeds, interference processes give w ay to developm ental processes, w hich gradually increase and then decrease over time. (M ajor, 1987:103)
A t e a r ly sta g e s, in te rfe re n c e p r o c e s s e s p re v e n t d e v e lo p m e n ta l p r o
c esses f ro m o p e ra tin g . A s in te rfe re n c e d im in ish e s , th en d e v e lo p m e n ta l p r o
c e s se s c a n b e g in to ap p ear.
A n e x a m p le w o u ld b e f o r a s p e a k e r o f B ra z ilia n P o rtu g u e s e (B P )
learn ing E n g lish . A t b e g in n in g stag es, th e se learn ers ev id en ce p a ra g o g e after v o ic e d s to p s ([d o g i] fo r [dDg]), w h ic h re p re s e n ts in te rferen c e fro m B P, w h e re
s y lla b le s tr u c tu re is g e n e ra lly C Y A t a la te r stag e, th e [i] is re p la c e d b y [s]. T h e d e v e lo p m e n ta l p ro c e s s th a t m ig h t o p e r a te h e re - te rm in a l o b s tru e n t d e-
v o ic in g - c a n n o t b e c a u s e o f th e p a ra g o g e . M a jo r c la im s th a t th e s ta g e s o f
a c q u is itio n c a n b e c h a ra c te ris e d as fo llo w s:
[dogi] (interference) [dDga] (developm ental) [dnk] (developm ental) [dDg]
H o w e v e r , it is n o t c le a r w h y th e fir s t c h a n g e (fro m [d o g i] [d o g s ] s h o u ld b e s e e n as d e v e lo p m e n ta l, u n le s s i t is b e in g c la im e d th a t L I le a rn e rs
o f E n g lis h m a n if e s t th is p ro c e s s , w h ic h w e d o u b t. F u rth e rm o re , th e th ird
stag e ( [d o k ] ) is a lso w h a t w e c o n s id e r to b e p o te n tia l r a th e r th a n a c tu a l in th e
p ro d u ctio n o f B razilian sp eak ers le arn in g E n g lish (alth o u g h this is a h y p o thesis
th a t r e m a in s to b e tested ).
A c c o r d in g to th is m o d e l, th e n , a b e g in n in g le a r n e r w ill tra n s fe r N L
fo rm s o n to th e T L b e c a u s e to o little o f th e T L h a s b e e n le arn e d ; as th e I L
s y s te m is m o d ifie d b y c o n ta c t w ith th e T L , it (th e in te rla n g u a g e ) w ill s h o w “n e w c o g n itiv e s tru c tu re s” w h ic h w ill a g a in a ffe c t th e d e v e lo p in g IL . T h e T L h a s its u n iq u e d e v e lo p m e n ta l f e a tu re s a n d as th e T L is in c r e a s in g ly
in flu e n tial o v e r th e IL , s o th e s e d e v e lo p m e n ta l p ro c e s s e s w ill b e g in to appear. T h e IL b e c o m e s m o re lik e th e T L a n d s o s u b s titu tio n s w ill fo llo w f ro m th e
T L s y s te m r a th e r th a n f ro m th e N L (M a jo r, 1 9 8 7 :10 4 ).
A s im p le e x a m p le o f th is p r o c e s s in o p e ra tio n c a n b e s e e n in th e
1 6 8 R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g ü í s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1
e ffe c t, as th e g e n e ra lis a tio n s are b a s e d o n in c o m p le te k n o w le d g e o f th e T L
a n d th e o v erg en era lizatio n s are th erefo re in flu e n c e d b y in co m p lete k n o w le d g e
o f th e T L , n o t b y in te rfe re n c e fro m th e N L , w h ic h m a y n o t h a v e a n y o f the fe a tu re s b e in g g e n e ra lis e d in its m o rp h o -s y n ta c tic o r p h o n o lo g ic a l re p erto ire.
M a jo r a lso p r o p o s e s th a t th is r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n in te rfe re n c e a n d
d e v e lo p m e n ta l fa c to rs is also re le v a n t f o r s ty listic sh ifts. A s s ty le b e c o m e s
in c rea sin g ly fo rm al, interferen ce d e crease s a n d d e v elo p m en tal factors in crea se
a n d th e n d e crease . T h is ech o e s D ic k e r s o n ’s (1 9 7 7 ) fin d in g th a t fre e s p ee c h is le s s p ro ficie n t th a n d ialo g u e rea d in g , w h ic h is less p ro fic ie n t th a n w o r d list
r e a d in g (se e p a g e 8 a b o v e ). M a jo r 's o w n re s e a rc h in to te stin g th is m o d e l
w a s in c o n c lu s iv e a n d it rem ain s a s u g g e s tio n o n ly o f th e k in d o f s c h e m a tic
r e la tio n s h ip th a t m ig h t e x is t b e tw e e n th e s e tw o e le m e n ts , in te rf e r e n c e (p re ferab ly , ‘n e g a tiv e tra n s f e r ’) a n d d e v e lo p m e n ta l p ro c e ss es.
L a n g u a g e tr a n s f e r : d e fin itio n s a n d p ro c e ss es
Corder (1983) and 6 the role of the mother tongue’
C o rd e r’s (19 8 3 ) article w as c o n tex tu a lise d b y h is co m m e n ts o n cu rren t
th in k in g on la n g u a g e a cq u isitio n u n d e r th e th e n n e w ‘s h ift in e m p h a s is ’ h e id e n tif ie d as ta k in g p la c e in S L A s tu d ie s . T h is s h ift in e m p h a s is w a s th e
m o v e to ‘c o m m u n ic a tiv e a p p ro a c h e s ’ to la n g u a g e te ac h in g , w h ic h h e s a w as
e s s e n tia lly a m o v e f ro m a co n cern w ith fo rm a l p ro p e rtie s o f la n g u a g e to a
fo c u s o n fu n c tio n , w ith m o re e m p h a s is o n c o m m u n ic a tiv e flu e n c y ra th e r th a n g r a m m a tic a l a c c u r a c y T h is w a s a s s o c ia te d , h e stated , w ith a c h a n g e in
th e fra m e w o r k fo r S L A research , w h ic h w a s n o w c o g n itiv e in n a tu re , s e e in g
la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n as th e creatio n o f a b o d y o f k n o w le d g e w h ic h p ro d u c e s u tte ra n c e s in th e T L .
T h e c o m p le x ity o f th is p r o c e s s is r e p r e s e n te d in th e l e a r n e r ’s
in te rla n g u a g e , w h ic h C o r d e r d es crib e s a s ‘a n in te rn a lis e d re p re s e n ta tio n o f th e re g u la r itie s [le arn e rs] d isc o v e r in th e lin g u is tic d a ta to w h ic h th e y are
e x p o s e d ’ (C o rd er, 1 9 8 3 :2 0 ). T h e q u e s tio n th a t re s e a rc h h a s b e e n fo c u s in g
o n is re la te d to th e n a tu r e o f the d e v e lo p m e n t o f this in te rla n g u a g e a n d h o w d e p e n d e n t it is o n th e k in d o f in p u t th a t is a v a ila b le to th e learn er. T h a t is, o f
th e tw o ty p es o f in p u t th a t a re g e n e ra lly a v a ila b le - te a c h in g s y lla b u s e s a n d th e o c c u rre n c e o f fo rm s in n o rm a l e x p o s u re to th e T L - w h ic h is m o re h e lp fu l to th e le a rn e r? C u rr e n t re s e a rc h a t th a t tim e s u g g e ste d th a t d e v e lo p m e n ta l
s e q u e n c e s w e re in d e p e n d e n t o f te a c h in g in p u t (C o rd e r c ites n o s o u rc e fo r
th a t th e le a r n e r u s e s to c re a te ‘e s se n tially th e s a m e s e q u e n c e o f d e v e lo p m e n t
o f th e in te r n a l re p re s e n ta tio n s o lo n g a s th e re is a d e q u a te d a ta f o r th e a c q u isitio n p r o c e s s to o p e r a te on.
G iv e n th is u n c h a n g in g d e v e lo p m e n ta l p ro c e s s a n d its in d e p e n d e n c e fro m th e e x te rn a l p ro c e s s e s s u c h as te a c h in g in p u t o r v a ria tio n in th e d a ta (a v a ilab le to le a rn e rs ), th e q u e s tio n is w h a t c a n b e s ta te d w ith r e g a r d to in te rn a l p r o c e s s e s ? F o r C o rd e r, th e s e in c lu d e a ffe c tiv e f a c to rs s u c h as m o tiv ation a n d attitude; b u t p rim a r ily th e k n o w le d g e the le a rn e r h as o f a n o th e r la n g u a g e , th e L I . W h ile a f fe c tiv e f a c to r s w ill p r o b a b ly n o t in f lu e n c e
d e v e lo p m e n ta l p ro c e s s e s (b u t o n ly d e v e lo p m e n ta l rates), th e c o g n itiv e fa c t o f th e p r e s e n c e o f th e L I ‘m ig h t re a s o n a b ly b e e x p e c te d ’ to in flu e n c e th e o rd e r o f th e d e v e lo p m e n ta l p ro c e s s.
F o r C o rd e r, s im ila rity b e tw e e n L I a n d L 2 p o te n tia te s th e fa c ilita tiv e fu n c tio n o f th e L I in th e a c q u is itio n o f th e T L . T h e L I , h e c la im s , h a s a
heuristic r o le in this p ro c e s s : b y this is m e a n t, p resu m ab ly , th a t th e L I h e lp s in the p ro c e s s o f discoveiing h o w the T L fun ctio n s, b y m e a n s o f ex p erim en tin g w ith L I ele m e n ts in L 2 c o n te x ts a n d seein g h o w successful (co m m u n icatively ) th e s e are. T h e re f o re , as a lo g ic a l c o n s e q u e n c e , th e g re a te r th e ‘d is ta n c e ’ b e tw e e n th e L I a n d the L 2 , th e fe w e r p o ssib ilities th ere w ill b e fo r this h eu ristic p ro c e s s to o p e ra te : th e le a r n e r b e c o m e s a w a re o f th e e x te n t o f th e d iffe ren ce s b e tw e e n th e tw o la n g u a g e s a n d g iv e s u p th e a tte m p t to u s e L I fe a tu re s in a s tra ig h tfo rw a rd o n e -to -o n e m a p p in g o f le x ic a l item s on to , sa y th e s y n ta x o f th e L 2 (a p r o c e s s d e s c rib e d as ‘r e - le x if ic a tio n ’ b y Z o b l (1 9 8 0 ). C o r d e r d e s c rib e s th is as th e le a rn e r d is c o v e rin g th e re la tiv e ‘b o rro w a b ility ’ th a t is p o s s ib le b e tw e e n tw o la n g u a g e s a n d d is c u s s e s th is f u rth e r la te r in h is tex t.
O n e o f the p ro b le m s C o rd er id en tifies in S L A studies is th e assu m p tio n th at la n g u a g e le a rn in g is a lin ear, c u m u la tiv e p ro c e ss (C o rd er, 1 9 8 3 :2 1 ). T h is b e lie f is re fle c te d in th e s y llab u ses th a t are u s e d fo r teach in g , w ith th e ir o rd ered
lists o f stru ctural item s th a t are a p p aren tly o rg an ised into a h ierarch y o f relativ e d ifficu lty , a h ie ra rc h y th a t is a lso c h ro n o lo g ic a l (s o m e s tru c tu re s a re to b e le a rn t b e f o re o th e rs, a n d s o o n ). T h is o rg a n isa tio n a l c o n v e n ie n c e h a s an
e ffe c t o n p e r c e p tio n s o f la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n as lin e a r p ro g re s sio n .
C o r d e r ’s m e ta p h o r is o f k n o w le d g e o f la n g u a g e as ‘an o rg a n ic a lly stru ctu red w h o le ’. T h e stru cture, o v e r tim e , d e v e lo p s fro m s im p le to c o m p le x b u t n o t in w a y s th a t c a n b e s e e n linear. H is a n a lo g y is w ith a flo w e r b u d d e v e lo p in g in to a b lo o m , w h e re all p a rts o f th e s tru c tu re a re d e v e lo p in g s im u lta n e o u s ly (a n d n o th in g is c o m p le te u n til th e w h o le is c o m p le te ). G iv en this a n a lo g y , it is d iffic u lt to s ee h o w ‘tra n s f e r ’, as a n o tio n o f stru c tu ra l
1 7 0 R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g U i s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . I , n . l , 2 0 0 1
C o rd e r ’s p o s itio n h e re is th a t (a ) la n g u a g e k n o w le d g e is a m a tte r o f in te rn a l re p re s e n ta tio n s o f th e T L b a s e d o n in fo rm a tio n fro m th a t la n g u a g e
in u s e a n d (b) th e p ro c e s s o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th a t la n g u a g e k n o w le d g e
ta k e s p la c e o n m u ltip le fro n ts, in a s im u lta n e o u s an d in te rd e p e n d e n t o rg a n ic
w ay . T h is m e a n s th a t (c) ‘tra n s fe r’ c a n n o t o p e ra te a t th e lev el o f stru c tu re , b u t m a y fu n c tio n as a w a y o f te stin g th e p o s s ib ilitie s fo r the u s e o f L 1 fea tu res
in th e L 2 , d e p e n d in g o n h o w ‘s im ila r’ th e L 2 is p e rc e iv e d to b e b y th e learner.
C o r d e r c alls this ‘b o r ro w in g ’ fro m th e L I in to th e L 2 a n d sees it as a p o s s ib le
m ec h a n is m f o r s tru c tu ra l tran sfer, a t la te r s ta g e s o f ac q u isitio n .
Interlanguage
C o r d e r a ls o th in k s o f la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n as o c c u r rin g a lo n g a
c o n tin u u m w h o s e id e al term inal p o in t is k n o w le d g e o f the T L (alth o u g h h e is c a r e fu l n o t to s tip u la te i f th a t k n o w le d g e is ‘n a tiv e - lik e ’ o r n o t). In h isto ric a l
lin g u is tic s , this c o n tin u u m re p re s en ts th e c h a n g in g n atu re o f a la n g u a g e o v e r
tim e , w ith le x is a n d s y n ta x b e in g a d ju s te d a c c o rd in g to w h a te v e r fo rc e s a c t u p o n a la n g u a g e a t a n y g iv e n m o m e n t. A s C o r d e r states, ru le s m a y c h a n g e ,
b e a d d e d to o r lost: th e overall com plexity o f th e lan g u ag e is n either d im in ish e d n o r in c re a s e d . T h e in te rla n g u a g e c o n tin u u m , o n th e o th e r h a n d , is p r e s u m e d to s ta r t a t a p o in t o f m a x im u m s im p lic ity in te rm s o f th e T L b u t w ith th e
c o m p le x ity o f th e L I as a n u n d e rly in g th e m e . F o r C order, this is p ro b le m a tic: s o m e i n t e r l a n g u a g e p r o p o n e n t s a r g u e t h a t th e s ta r tin g p o i n t o f th e in te rla n g u a g e is th e L I , w h ich is th en re stru c tu re d d u rin g a cq u isitio n th ro u g h
‘a s e q u e n c e o f ap p ro x im a tiv e sy stem s p ro g re s s iv e ly m o re s im ilar to th e targ e t la n g u a g e ’ (C o rd er, 1 9 8 3 :23 ). T h is m o d e l w o u ld m e a n th a t the in te rla n g u a g e is m o r e L I - lik e a t e a r lie r stag es ra th e r th a n later.
F o r C o rd e r, s u c h a m o d e l w o u ld m e a n th a t th e le a r n e r ’s e a r ly u tte ra n c e s w o u ld b e m o re L l- lik e th a n ta rg e t-lik e . H o w e v e r, r e s e a r c h c ite d b y h im (E rv in -T rip p , 1 9 7 4 ) sh o w s th a t e a r ly L 2 p ro d u c tio n is p id g in -lik e in
its s y n ta x a n d is n o t in flu e n c e d b y th e L I . T h e c o n tin u u m in S L A is th e refo re o n e o f in c r e a s in g re la tiv e c o m p le x ity r a th e r th a n re a d ju s tm e n t w ith a n u n d e r ly in g is o b a r o f lin g u istic ric h n e ss . It is a developm ental continuum
r a th e r th a n a re s tru c tu rin g c o n tin u u m , s im ila r to th o s e fo u n d in th e p o s t
p id g in fo rm s th a t b e c o m e creo les, o r th e firs t la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n (F L A ) c o n tin u u m o f d e v e lo p m e n t. H e a rg u e s th a t th e startin g p o in t o f th e S L A
I t is th is q u e s tio n o f th e s ta rtin g p o in t fo r th e L 2 c o n tin u u m th a t is
sign ifican t h e re. T h e lea rn e r o f an L 2 a lread y h a s a lan g u a g e a n d the ex p e rie n c e
o f le a rn in g a la n g u a g e . T h e L 2 le a r n e r ’s in itia l p ro d u c tio n is v e ry p id g in -lik e a n d C o r d e r s u g g e s ts th a t th e L 2 le a r n e r h a s ‘re g re s s e d to an e a rlie r s ta g e o f
h is o w n lin g u is tic d e v e lo p m e n t5 - th a t is, h a s re tu rn e d to a s ta g e in lin g u istic
te rm s th a t p r e d a te s th e fir s t s ta g e s o f d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e L I . H e a lso s p e c u la te s th a t this e a rlie r s ta g e is so s tr ip p e d d o w n g ra m m a tic a lly s p e a k in g
th a t it m a y r e fle c t a b a s ic , u n iv e rs a l g r a m m a r th a t is a v a ila b le to all le a rn e rs
re g a rd le s s o f th e ir s p e c ific L I .
C o r d e r a lso re je c ts th e s u g g e s tio n th a t w h a t th e le a rn e r w o rk s w ith a t th e in itia l s tag e s o f a c q u is itio n is s o m e s o rt o f sim p lifie d v e rsio n o f th e T L ,
as, lo g ic a lly sp e a k in g , y o u c a n n o t s im p lify th e k n o w le d g e o f a s y s te m i f y o u
d o n o t y e t h a v e th a t k n o w le d g e (C o rd e r c ite s V ald m an (1 9 7 7 ) in s u p p o rt o f
this).
‘Borrowing'
T h e ro le o f th e m o th e r to n g u e f o r C o rd e r th e n is th a t o f a h e u ris tic
a n d fa c ilita tiv e re s o u rc e th a t is a v a ila b le to le a rn e rs a fte r th e in itia l s ta g e s o f
a c q u is itio n a n d is u s e d b y th e m to ‘[h elp ] in th e p ro c e s s o f d isc o v e ry a n d c r e a tio n ’ (C o rd e r, 1 9 8 3 :2 5 ). H e h a s r e je c te d th e c o n c e p t o f ‘in te rf e r e n c e ’
b y s h o w in g th a t la n g u a g e d iss im ila rity im p lie s a re d u c tio n in th e p o s s ib ility fo r u s in g th e L I as a re s o u r c e f o r fillin g in k n o w le d g e g ap s in th e L 2 . T h e L I
is po ten tially h e lp fu l f o r d is c o v e rin g fe a tu re s o f th e L 2 ; it is no t d e m o n s tra b ly
inhibiting to la n g u a g e d e v e lo p m e n t: th e r e is n o ‘p ro a c tiv e in h ib itio n o f f a c ilita tio n ’, in C o r d e r ’s w o rd s (C o rd er, 1 9 8 3 :2 1 ).
C o r d e r h a s s tr o n g d o u b ts a b o u t w h e th e r tr a n s f e r a ls o o c c u r s . A v o id a n c e f e a tu r e s , w h ic h a re s o c h a r a c te r is tic o f s o m e le a r n e r s ’ L 2
p ro d u c tio n , c a n n o t b e s a id to b e d e r iv e d f ro m ‘tra n s fe r’ p ro c e ss e s. I f th e r e is
tra n sfer, it m u s t b e a t a h ig h e r le v e l o f c o g n itiv e c o m p lex ity :
i f a n y th in g w h ic h c a n b e a p p r o p r ia te ly c a lle d tr a n s f e r o c c u rs , i t is f r o m th e m e n t a l s tr u c tu r e w h i c h is t h e i m p l i c i t k n o w l e d g e o f th e m o th e r to n g u e to th e s e p a ra te a n d in d e p e n d e n tly d e v e lo p in g k n o w le d g e o f th e ta rg e t la n g u a g e . ( C o r d e r , 1 9 8 3 : 2 5 )
1 7 2 R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g l i i s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1
c a lle d ‘re sid e n t e r r o r s ’ a n d w h a t S e lin k e r (1 9 7 2 ) ta g g e d as ‘fo s s iliz a tio n ’.
C o rd e r argues that th e re m a y b e a n o th e r ex p lan atio n fo r this p ro cess altogether, w h a t h e c a lls ‘b o r r o w in g ’ . T h e f a c t t h a t b o rro w in g p h e n o m e n a a re h ig h ly v a r ia b le an d s itu a tio n -d e p e n d e n t m e a n s th a t th e y h a v e to b e a p e rfo r m a n c e p h e n o m e n o n ra th e r th a n th e resu lt o f c o g n itiv e n ecessity .
C o rd e r e x p la in s th e fu n c tio n o f b o rro w in g in h is s e n se o f th e te r m as
a c o m m u n ic a tiv e s tra te g y that lead s to ‘s u c c e s s ’ th a t is d efin e d b y th e a b ility to c o m m u n ic a te ( ra th e r th an fro m th e p o in t o f v ie w o f g ra m m a tic a lity ). B o rro w in g b etw een fairly sim ilar la n g u a g e s h a s a reaso n ab le d e g ree o f su ccess in th is s e n se o f th e te rm , w ith n o c o n s e q u e n t p r e s s u re e x istin g to le a d th e le a r n e r to m o re g r a m m a tic a lly a c c u r a te f o rm s o f p ro d u c tio n . H e n c e , u n g ra m m a tic a l f o r m s th a t h a v e b e e n g e n e r a lly s u c c e ss fu l c o m m u n ic a tiv e ly
s p e a k in g w ill te n d to p e r s is t in th e p e r fo r m a n c e o f th e learn er. F o rm a l in s tru c tio n , C o rd e r re m in d s us (c itin g K ra s h e n , 1981), can h a v e little effe c t o n e r ro r p ro d u c tio n a n d so it is as ju s tif ia b le to c la im th a t p ersis te n t e rro r is as lik e ly to c o m e fro m b o r ro w in g as it is f ro m s tru c tu ral transfer.
In fact, as C o rd e r g o es o n to c laim , b o rro w in g m a y b e th e m echanism
w h e r e b y tra n s fe r o f s tru c tu re s tak e s p la c e , as s u c c e s s fu lly b o rro w e d ite m s a re g ra d u a lly a b s o rb e d in to the in te rla n g u a g e g ra m m a r:
I t is o n ly a f t e r r e g u la r , r e p e a te d a n d c o m m u n ic a tiv e ly s u c c e s s fu l u s e o f th e
b o r r o w e d ite m s th a t th e y c o m e t o b e in c o r p o r a te d in to th e la n g u a g e s y s te m o f th e b o r r o w e r 's m o th e r to n g u e . ( C o r d e r , 1 9 8 3 :2 8 ) .
T h is s u c ce ssfu l u s e p ro v id es, in fac t, b o th m e c h a n is m a n d m o tiv a tio n
fo r stru ctu ral transfer: th e m e c h an is m is th e s p e cu lativ e b o rro w in g th at clo sely
s im ila r la n g u a g e s e n co u ra g e ; the m o tiv a tio n is th a t this b o rro w in g s tra te g y is
fre q u e n tly c o m m u n ic a tiv e ly su c c e ss fu l in th o s e situ atio n s.
L a n g u a g e tr a n s f e r : fu n d a m e n ta l p ro b le m s
O d lin ’s (1 9 8 9 ) w o rk on la n g u a g e tra n s f e r b e g in s b y o u tlin in g s o m e o f th e p ro b le m s in h e re n t in th e stu d y o f th is p h e n o m e n o n , in c lu d in g p ro b le m s
o f d e fin itio n , c o m p a ris o n an d p re d ic tio n .
Definition
id e o lo g ic a lre a s o n s . T h e te rm ‘a p p lie d lin g u is tic s ’ its e lf is ill-d e fin e d a n d the
d o m a in is o p e n to in c lu d e a su p e rflu ity o f (so m etim es co n flictin g ) inte llec tu al
in tere sts. T h e te rm ‘tra n sfe r’ is n o e x ce p tio n ; C order, as w e h a v e seen, se e m e d
to a d v o c a te a b a n d o n in g th e te r m a lto g e th e r (C o rd er, 1 9 8 3 :21 ). O n e w a y a ro u n d th is p r o b le m is to d e fin e w h a t tra n s f e r is not, to le a v e a c le a r e r id e a o f
w h a t is c o n te m p la te d in th e term in o lo g y .
I t is a ls o n e c e s s a ry to c o n s id e r th e te r m tra n sfe r a n d its re la tio n w ith
th e id e a o f ‘in te rfe re n c e ’, a te rm w h ic h w a s its e lf re jec te d b y C order. O d lin ’s p o s itio n is th a t th e in flu e n c e o f th e n a tiv e la n g u a g e is p o s itiv e a n d h e lp fu l
( ‘f a c ilita tiv e ’ in C o r d e r ’s fo rm u la tio n ) r a th e r th a n n o t. T h e p re fe rre d te r m
h e re is negative transfer, as th is in d ica tes th e p o ssib ility o f the m a in ten d en cy ,
p o sitive tra n sfe r, a n d all th is c a n b e s e e n a s a w a y o f e x p la in in g th e e ffe c t of, f o r e x a m p le , fa ls e a n d tru e c o g n a te s in th e le x is o f th e tw o la n g u a g e s : fa lse c o g n a te s (to p r e te n d a n d p re te n d e r in E n g lis h a n d P o rtu g u e s e re s p e c tiv e ly ) m a y le a d to n eg ativ e tra n sfer an d tru e c o g n ate s (to pronounce an d pronunciar)
to p o s itiv e tra n sfer.
M o re o v e r , it is n o t a lw a y s th e c a s e th a t tra n sfe r p ro c e s s e s in d ic a te a re v e rs io n to th e L I , as w a s c la im e d b y K r a s h e n (1 9 8 5 ), w h e re a p p ly in g an
L I r u le in a n L 2 c o n te x t w a s s e e n as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f a la c k o f k n o w le d g e o f th e L 2 ru le . F o r O d lin , th is p o s itio n ig n o re s th e ad v a n tag e s th a t a re im p lic it
in th e p o s s e s s io n o f a p re v io u s la n g u a g e (o r lan g u a g e s ) b y th e le a r n e r w h o is
b e g in n in g to le a rn an a d d itio n a l id iom . T h e in tera ctio n b e tw e e n th e la n g u a g e
is n o t a lw a y s m a n ife s te d in ru le -b a s e d b e h a v io u r: c ro s s-lin g u is tic b e n e fits c a n b e s e e n a t le v e ls o f o rth o g ra p h y , f o r e x a m p le , o r in th e lo n g -te r m re su lts
o f la n g u a g e c o n ta c t in s o m e c u ltu ra l s e ttin g s .
In m a n y learn ers, th e d istin ctio n L I a n d L 2 is s h o rth a n d fo r a situatio n w h ere o th e r la n g u a g e s a n d d ialects m a y b e in v o lv ed . T ran sfer, th en , m a y n o t
a lw a y s c o m e f ro m L I s o u rc e s . A s C o r d e r s h o w s , o th e r la n g u a g e s in
d e v e lo p m e n t in th e le a r n e r m a y h e lp in th e a c q u is itio n o f a fu rth e r la n g u a g e ,
an d m a y e v e n b e p r e fe rre d b y th e le a r n e r to th e L I (C o rde r, 1 9 8 3 :2 5 ). T h i s le a d s u s to l o o k a t th e tw o ty p e s o f tr a n s f e r th a t O d lin
d i s t i n g u i s h e s a n d w h ic h h a s lin k s to C o r d e r ’s n o tio n o f ( p e r c e iv e d ) ‘b o r ro w a b ility ’ : borrow ing tra nsfer a n d substratum transfer. T h e firs t o f th e se , borrow ing transfer, re fe rs to th e in flu e n c e th a t is s o m e tim e s fe lt o n a p rev io u sly le a rn e d lan g u ag e by a lan g u ag e th a t is the p ro cess o f b e in g acquired: th e L 2 m a y h a v e a n e ffe c t o n th e L I o f th e learn er. Substratum tra nsfer is the fo c u s o f this stu d y a n d refers to c ro ss -lin g u istic fro m th e L I to th e L 2 . O d lin ’s
1 7 4 R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g l i i s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1
T r a n s f e r is t h e in fl u e n c e r e s u ltin g f r o m s im ila ri tie s a n d d if f e re n c e s b e tw e e n t h e t a r g e t la n g u a g e a n d a n y o t h e r la n g u a g e th a t h a s b e e n p r e v io u s ly ( a n d p e r h a p s i m p e r f e c tly ) a c q u ir e d . ( O d lin , 1 9 8 9 :2 7 ) .
T h is is o n ly a ten ta tiv e a p p r o a c h to a d e fin itio n a n d a ll th e te rm s in v o k e d h e re w o u ld n e e d to b e e x a m in e d c a re fu lly b e f o re a n a d e q u a te
d e te r m in a tio n o f w h a t tra n sfe r m ig h t b e c a n b e o u tlin ed .
Comparison
T h e s tu d y o f tra n s fe r d e p e n d s o n s y s te m a tic c o m p a ris o n s o f th e
la n g u a g e s in v o lv e d . S tru c tu ral fa c to rs a re fu n d a m e n ta l to th e se c o m p a ris o n s
b u t th e y a re n o t s u fficien t: s o m e a w a re n e s s o f n o n -stru c tu ra l fa c to rs h a s to
b e a v a ila b le (O d lin , 1989:28). In a d d itio n , d e s crip tio n s n e e d to b e a u g m e n te d
w ith th eo re tic a l p rin c ip le s w h ic h a llo w f o r u s e fu l p re d ic tio n s to b e m a d e a b o u t w h a t w ill b e d iffic u lt o r ea s y in th e s tu d y o f la n g u a g e B b y s p e a k e rs o f
la n g u a g e A . D e s c rip tiv e a c c u ra c y is e s s e n tia l f o r a th e o re tic a lly a d e q u a te g r a m m a r to e x ist; n o la n g u a g e h a s y e t b e e n c o m p le te ly d e s c rib e d s o th is
p re c o n d itio n f o r th e o re tic a l a c c u ra c y is u n fu lfille d .
A k e y q u e s tio n in c o m p a r a tiv e s tu d ie s lie s b e h in d th e e a r lie r
a s s u m p tio n s (L a d o , 1 9 5 7 ; F rie s, 1 9 4 5 ) th a t e q u a te d difference a n d difficulty.
M o r e s u b tle a n a ly s e s h a v e b ee n re q u ire d to u n d e r s ta n d w h a t d iffe re n c e m ay
m e a n . F o r e x a m p le , w h e r e a s tru c tu ra l fe a tu re in o n e la n g u a g e h a s tw o c o u n te rp a rts in th e ta rg e t lan g u ag e , th e d e g re e o f d ifficu lty m a y b e in cre a se d ,
b u t asy m m e trica lly . T h a t is, the v e rb to be in E n g lis h h a s tw o c o u n te rp a rts in P o rtu g u e s e {ser a n d estar). T h is fe atu re c a u s e s p ro b le m s fo r E n g lish s p ea k ers le a r n in g P o rtu g u e s e , b u t n o t fo r P o r tu g u e s e s p e a k e rs le a rn in g E n g lish .
Prediction
O d lin id e n tifie s tw o ty p es o f p re d ic tio n : th a t b a s e d on re c o rd s o f p a s t e v e n ts (F re n c h le a r n e rs o f A ra b ic in th e p a s t h a v e le ft p e r fo rm a n c e d a ta
a b o u t th e p ro b le m s o f le a rn in g A ra b ic ) a n d th a t b a s e d o n c ro s s -lin g u is tic c o m p a ris o n s . T h e la tte r ty p e w o u ld re q u ire p re d ic tio n s to b e m a d e b e fo re
