R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g ü í s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 1 1 7 - 1 5 4 , 2 0 0 1 1 1 7
‘If I were you...’: Language Standards and
Corpus Data in
E F L
R o b e rt d e B e a u g r a n d e
U n iv e r s id a d e F e d e r a l d e M in a s G e ra is
Este artigo discute questões sobre o inglês padrão e o uso de corpora no co ntexto do ensino de inglês com o líng ua estrangeira. Reflete-se sobre o papel q u e os textos autênticos p assam a ter tanto para a lingüística quanto a ling ü ística aplicada. O autor ressalta qu e professores e alunos de inglês com o líng ua estrangeira não p odem esperar p or u m futuro no qual todos os prob lem as teóricos e práticos tenh am sido resolvidos e convida todos para p articip ar de fo rm a ativa na construção de u m ensino de línguas baseado em textos autênticos. N esse sentido, ressalta que o input e feed back de todos os envolvidos no ensino de línguas em seus diversos estágios é crucial p ara q u e problem as sejam avaliados e resolvidos.
Standart English, authentic English
P e r io d ic a lly , ‘s ta n d a r d E n g l is h ’ b e c o m e s a to p ic o f liv e ly c o n tr o v e rs y th a t s ta u n c h ly re s is ts b e in g re c o n c ile d . T o a p p re c ia te w h y , w e m ig h t id e n tif y tw o in c o m p a tib le c o n c e p tio n s . In th e e x c lu s iv e c o n c e p tio n , s ta n d a rd E n g l is h is a p u r e m e d iu m w ith s tr in g e n t r u le s a n d p r e c is e b o u n d a rie s; a ll n o n - s ta n d a r d u s a g e s a n d v a r ia tio n s a re u n if o r m ly c la s s if ie d as
e r r o r s . T h e ‘s ta n d a r d s ’ a re p e r c e iv e d to b e u n d e r g o in g a d e c lin e u n le s s s tr o n g m e a s u r e s a re ta k e n .
T h e e x c l u s i v e c o n c e p t i o n e n c o u r a g e s T E S O L a n d T E F L to e m p h a s is e a s tr ic t d iv is io n b e tw e e n ‘s ta n d a r d ’ v e rs u s ‘n o n - s ta n d a r d ’
E n g lis h . In p r a c tic e , te a c h in g a n d le a r n in g a re ty p ic a lly a r r a n g e d to m in im is e th e o c c u r re n c e s o f n o n -s ta n d a r d E n g lis h e v e n w h e n th e le a r n e r s ’ f lu e n c y is in s u f f ic ie n t to p r o d u c e s ta n d a r d E n g lis h o n th e ir o w n in itia tiv e . S o th e in itia tiv e is d e n ie d b y e n lis tin g th e m in im ita tiv e p r o d u c tio n , s u c h as r e p e a tin g o r w r itin g d o w n th e te a c h e r s ’ u tte r a n c e s , o r r e a d in g o u t s a m p le s o f E n g l is h f r o m te x tb o o k s o r w o r k s h e e ts . T h e s a m p le s s u s ta in th e ir ‘s ta n d a r d n e s s ’ b y b e in g p a te n tly s im p lif ie d a n d u n ifo r m , lik e th e s e I
f o u n d in r e a l te x tb o o k s :
[1] I h e a r w ith m y e a rs.
1 1 8 R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g i i i s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1 [3 ] U s e f u l k n o w le d g e is d e s ir e d .
[4 ] I lik e a b e d r o o m w ith g r e e n w a lls .
I n s o f a r as th is v a rie ty o f s ta n d a r d E n g lis h is n o t f o u n d in th e
e v e r y d a y la n g u a g e u s e o f n a tiv e s p e a k e r s , I p r o p o s e to la b e l it n o n -a u t h e n t i c E n g l i s h, a n d to q u e s tio n w h e th e r e x p o s u r e to it, h o w e v e r p r o lo n g e d , c a n b e re a lis tic a lly e x p e c te d to b u ild flu e n c y f o r th e a u th e n tic E n g l is h u s e d b y n a tiv e s p e a k e rs.
I n th e i n c lu s iv e c o n c e p tio n , S t a n d a r d E n g l is h is o n e v a r ie ty b o r d e r in g u p o n a n d o v e rla p p in g w ith a f a m ily o f ‘W o rld E n g lis h e s ’ . A n y
n o n - s ta n d a r d u s a g e w h ic h w id e ly o c c u r s in s o m e v a rie ty is n o t a n e r r o r
b u t a v a r ia tio n , a n d s h o u ld b e u n d e r s to o d f r o m its s o c ia l, h is to r ic a l, o r g e o g r a p h ic a l m o tiv a tio n s . T h e ‘s ta n d a r d s ’ a re p e rc e iv e d to b e u n d e r g o in g
n o t a d e c li n e b u t d iv e r s ific a tio n, d u e to s w if t a n d m a s s iv e in c r e a s e s in th e s iz e a n d d is tr ib u tio n o f th e w o r ld - w i d e p o p u la tio n o f p r o s p e c tiv e
le a r n e r s o f E n g lis h . I f a d e c lin e d o e s e n s u e , th e n c h ie fly b e c a u s e th is
p o p u la tio n c a n n o t g a in s u ffic ie n t e x p o s u r e to s ta n d a r d E n g lis h th a t is
a ls o a u th e n tic E n g lis h .
T h e i n c l u s i v e c o n c e p tio n e n c o u r a g e s T E S O L a n d T E F L to
e m p h a s is e th e fa m ily re se m b la n c e s a m o n g v a rie tie s o f E n g lish . O n e b u n d le
o f th e s e v a r ie tie s c o m p r is e s ‘le a r n e r E n g l i s h e s ’, w h ic h , th o u g h p a r tia lly
n o n -s ta n d a r d , a re n o n e th e le s s s y s te m ic . T h e ir e rro rs a re n a tu ra l v a ria tio n s
w ith in a tr a n s itio n a l h y b r id is e d s y s te m w h e r e c o n tro l is s h a r e d b e tw e e n
th e s y s te m o f E n g lis h a n d th e s y s te m o f th e n a tiv e la n g u a g e . H e r e a re
s o m e U A E U fo u rth -y e a r stu d e n t d a ta f r o m se lf-p a c e d w ritin g a ss ig n m e n ts ,
w h ic h I h a v e o b s e r v e d to b e ty p ic a l:
[5] T h e U A E d e s e r t r ic h w ith g r e e n p la n ts [= T h e U A E d e s e r t is r ic h
w ith g re e n p la n ts ]
[6] M o s t o f p e o p le in th e w o rld s p e a k in g E n g lis h [= M o s t p e o p le in th e
w o r ld s p e a k E n g lis h ]
[7] T e a c h e r m a y b e d ir ty fr o m h e a d to to e s s in c e th e c h a lk . [= A
t e a c h e r m a y b e d u s ty fr o m h e a d to f o o t/ f r o m to p to to e b e c a u s e o f
th e c h a lk .]
[8] B e i n g a p o litic ia n is a p p ro p ria te f o r w o m e n b e c a u s e th e y lik e a r g u
m e n t a n d d e b a te a n d c a n ta lk h o u r s . [= ta lk f o r h o u rs ]
T h e s e s tu d e n ts a re p r e d ic ta b ly c o m p e n s a tin g f o r th e ir lim ite d
R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g ü í s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1 1 1 9 T h e la tte r la n g u a g e la c k s ‘b e ’ in th e P r e s e n t [ 5 ] ;3 W e b s te r ’s S e v e n th u s e s P a r tic ip le s in p l a c e o f F in ite V e rb s o n m a n y o c c a s io n s [6]; la c k s t h e I n d e f in ite A r tic le [7 ]; a n d u s e s N o u n s in th e A c c u s a tiv e C a s e as A d v e r b s o f T im e [8 ]. I n t h e c o llo c a tio n ‘h e a d to t o e s ’ [7 ], th e s t u d e n t - p r o d u c e d v a ria tio n is m o r e lo g ic a l th a n S ta n d a rd E n g lis h , w h ic h s a y s ‘h e a d to f o o t ’
(w h y n o t ‘f e e t ’? ) o r ‘to p to t o e ' (w h y n o t ‘b o t t o m ’?) ( C O B U I L D 6 7 0 , 1 5 4 4 ).2
T h e i n c l u s i v e c o n c e p tio n d e f in e s th e l o n g - r a n g e ta s k o f T E S O L a n d T E F L a s p r o m o tin g a c o n v e rg e n c e b e tw e e n m u ltip le sy ste m s: b e tw e e n le a r n e r E n g l is h e s a n d s ta n d a rd E n g lis h . T h e c o n v e r g e n c e m u s t b e g r a d u
a l b e c a u s e o f th e s h e e r s iz e a n d c o m p le x ity o f th e ta sk ; b u t th e s e f a c t o r s s h o u ld s e e m l e s s d a u n tin g i f w e h a v e m a p s o f th e in te r m e d ia r y s ta g e s t o id e n tif y s ig n a ls o f p r o g r e s s .
T h e e x c lu s iv e c o n c e p tio n , in c o n tr a s t, c a n p r o v id e n o m a p s o f p ro g r e s s i n s o f a r a s i t v ie w s th e s e s ta g e s a s a r b itr a r y f lu c tu a tio n s in t h e le v e ls o f e r r o r p ro d u c tio n . T h is v ie w to ta lly o v e rlo o k s th e s y s te m ic q u a lity o f le a r n e r E n g l is h e s , w itn e s s th is m a g is te r ia l p ro n o u n c e m e n t: ‘v e r y f e w s p e a k e rs lim it t h e i r a b e r ra n c ie s to th e w id e ly s h a r e d f e a tu re s ; e a c h i n d i v i d u a l ty p ic a lly a d d s in h is o w n s p e e c h a la r g e a n d id io s y n c r a tic c o l le c tio n
o f f e a tu r e s ’ ( P r a to r , 1 9 6 8 :4 6 4 ) . S u c h a v ie w re f le c ts a d e p lo r a b le l a c k o f k n o w le d g e a n d r e s p e c t r e g a r d in g l e a r n e r E n g lis h e s , a n d d o e s n o t h o l d u p in th e f a c e o f s y s te m a tic d o c u m e n ta tio n (a s in G r a n g e r [E d .], 1 9 9 8 ) .
T h e s a m e v ie w d is tra c ts u s f r o m a p p r e c ia tin g th e im p a c t o f n o n - a u th e n tic E n g lis h o n th e le a rn in g p ro c e ss . T h e s im p lifie d , u n ifo r m E n g l is h th o u g h t a p p r o p r ia te f o r n o n - n a tiv e s r e a d ily s tr a y s o v e r th e b o r d e r w h e r e n o n - a u th e n tic E n g l is h b e c o m e s n o n - s ta n d a r d E n g lis h to o , a s in t h e s e s a m p le s ( a g a in f r o m r e a l te x tb o o k s ):
[9 ] I d if f e r e n tia te d m ilk f r o m w a te r. [1 0 ] T h e p la n e fe ll b u t th e lo s s is s m a ll.
1 M o r e p r e c is e ly , ‘P a s t ’ a n d ‘P r e s e n t ’ a r e m is le a d in g tr a n s la tio n s b y W e s te r n e r s f o r th e A r a b ic c o m p l e t i v e a n d n o n - c o m p le tiv e A s p e c ts , w h ic h A r a b ic g r a m m a r ia n s c a l l ‘m a a D i’ a n d ‘m u D a a r i ’. T h is f a c to r to o c a u s e s m y s tu d e n ts g r e a t c o n f u s io n . A l s o , t h e E n u m e r a to r s l ik e n u m b e r s a n d ‘m o s t ’ a r e m a in ly N o u n s f o llo w e d b y th e G e n i t i v e , w h e n c e th e l o g i c o f ‘m o s t o f p e o p l e ’.
2 T o c o n s e r v e s p a c e , th e w o r d y title s o f d ic tio n a r ie s a re s h o r te n e d a s f o llo w s :
C O B U I L D = C o l l i n s C O B U I L D E n g l is h L a n g u a g e D i c t i o n a r y ( 1 9 8 7 )
R a n d o m W e b s t e r = R a n d o m H o u s e W e b s t e r ’s C o l l e g e D i c t i o n a r y ( 1 9 9 1 )
1 2 0 R e v . B r a s i J e i r a d e L in g L lis tic a A p J i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1 [11] B e p o lite so th a t y o u c o u ld b e a c c e p ta b le .
[12 ] W o u ld th a t w o rld p e a c e is p e r m a n e n t.
T h e a u th o r s w e re n o n - n a tiv e s p e a k e r s , b u t th e n s o a r e m a n y
te a c h e r s o f E F L , s o m e o f w h o m , f in d in g th e s e s a m p le s in a te x tb o o k ,
m i g h t le t th e m p a s s . M y p o in t is th a t a n e a s y a c c e p ta n c e o f n o n - a u th e n tic
E n g l i s h c a n d u ll o u r s e n s itiv ity f o r s ta n d a r d s o f E n g lis h th a t a r e f a r m o re s u b tle th a n th e r o u tin e issu e s in p ro n u n c ia tio n , o rth o g ra p h y , a n d g ra m m a r.
I w o u ld m a k e th e sa m e p o in t o n a h ig h e r le v e l w h e n n o n -a u th e n tic
E n g l i s h is u s e d in th e o r e tic a l c o u r s e s in lin g u is tic s , su c h a s s y n ta x a n d
s e m a n tic s . T h e r e , th e m o tiv e o f th e te x tb o o k a u th o rs is d if f e r e n t: th e
l in g u is tic a n a ly s is is so c o m p lic a te d a n d a rtific ia l a s to b e p r a c tic a b le a t
a ll o n ly f o r s im p lif ie d s a m p le s o f E n g l is h lik e th e e v e r g r e e n ‘th e m a n h it t h e b a l l ’ . B u t t h e o u tc o m e is m u c h th e s a m e : le a r n e r s a re e x p o s e d to
s e n te n c e s w h ic h d o n o th in g to e n h a n c e th e ir flu e n c y in a u th e n tic E n g lis h . O n e t e x tb o o k I e n c o u n te r e d f o r a f o u r t h - y e a r u n i v e r s i t y c o u r s e in
s e m a n tic s d e m o n s tr a te d th e c o n c e p tio n s o f ‘a n a ly tic ’, ‘s y n t h e t i c ’ a n d
‘c o n tr a d ic to r y s e n te n c e s ’ w ith d a ta in c lu d in g th e se :
[13 ] J o h n ’s n in e - y e a r o ld b r o t h e r is a b o y .
[1 4 ] T h e f ly w a s o n th e w a ll, so th e w a ll w a s u n d e r th e fly.
[1 5 ] J o h n is ta lle r th a n h im s e lf .
[1 6 ] T h a t g ir l is h e r o w n m o t h e r ’s m o th e r.
H e r e , th e s a m p le s a re n o n - a u th e n tic b e c a u s e s e m a n tic s p r o p o s e s
to s tu d y m e a n in g w h ils t ‘d e lib e r a te ly e x c lu d in g a n y in f lu e n c e o f c o n te x t
o r s itu a tio n o f u tte r a n c e 5 ( H u r f o r d a n d H e a s le y , 1 9 9 6 : 9 1 ). P r e f e r e n c e
g o e s to s a m p le s th a t n e a tiy d iv id e u p b e tw e e n o b v io u sly tru e a n d o b v io u s ly
f a ls e . B u t th e d iv is io n is i r r e le v a n t to e v e r y d a y c o n v e r s a tio n a n d a ls o to
t h e ta s k s o f T E F L . W e w o u ld j u s tly f e e l a b s u r d a n im a tin g o u r s tu d e n ts to
g o a b o u t u tte r in g th in g s lik e [1 3 -1 4 ] a n d n o t u tte r in g th in g s lik e [1 5 -1 6 ].
A u th e n tic ity is a p r o b le m w h o s e s u b tle ty a n d im p o r ta n c e h a v e
y e t to b e fu lly re c o g n is e d . S a m p le s w h ic h r e f le c t th e s y s te m ic q u a litie s o f
le a r n e r E n g lis h w o u ld b e a u th e n tic in te r m s o f th a t s y s te m , a s d if f e r e n t
f r o m th e is o la te d a n d tru ly ‘id io s y n c r a tic ’ o c c u rre n c e s w h e n le a r n e r s p a n ic o r m a k e w ild , r a n d o m g u e s s e s . B u t th e d iff e r e n c e m a y n o t b e e a s y to
r e c o g n is e u n le s s w e h a v e la rg e a n d s y s te m a tic s a m p lin g s o f le a r n e r s E n g lis h e s (se e n o w G ra n g e r [E d .], 1 9 9 8 ). M o re o v e r, o u r s tu d e n ts p ro d u c e
R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g ü í s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1 1 21 ‘r u le s ’, a r e n o t a u th e n tic s ta n d a r d E n g lis h , e .g . (m o r e U A E U s tu d e n t
d a ta ):
[17] I a m a b o u t to h a te m y m a jo r [= c o m in g to h a te m y m a jo r]
[ 18] I w ill s u c c e e d i f lu c k is p r e s e n t [= i f I a m lu c k y /if lu c k is o n m y
sid e]
[19 ] I a s k G o d to m a k e m e a c h ie v e m y a m b itio n [= I p r a y th a t G o d m a y
g r a n t m e th e a c h i e v e m e n t ...]
[2 0 ] A n d w e a s w o m e n , o u r m e s s a g e is to r e a r o u r c h ild r e n e x c e lle n t
re a r in g . [= A n d f o r u s w o m e n , th e m e s s a g e is to r e a r o u r c h ild r e n
e x c e lle n tly .]
T h e s e s u b t l e r p r o b l e m s a g a i n i m p l y a t e n s i o n a m o n g t h e
‘s ta n d a r d s ’ o f E n g lis h a n d th e s ta n d a r d s o f th e h o m e la n g u a g e . S a m p le
[12 ] r e p r o d u c e s a c o n s tr u c tio n c o n s id e r e d e le g a n t in C la s s ic a l A ra b ic ,
n a m e l y t h e A c c u s a t i v e A b s o l u t e , w h e r e a V e rb ta k e s a r e d u n d a n t
P a r tic ip ia l O b je c t f o r m e d f r o m th e s a m e s te m ( ‘r e a r a r e a r in g ’). S ta n d a r d
in A r a b ic to o is m a k in g o n e N o u n P h r a s e a t th e s ta r t o f a s e n te n c e b e th e
T o p ic a n d a n o th e r b e t h e g r a m m a tic a l S u b je c t, a ls o f o u n d in [1 2 ]. W h a t
a p p e a rs to b e c a r e le s s e rr o r s is in f a c t th e r e s u lt o f c a r e f u l a tte n tio n to
tr a n s p o s e d s ta n d a rd s .
Theory and practice of large corpora in EFL
B y m y lin e o f a r g u m e n t so fa r, le a r n e r s o f E F L , a n d s o m e n o n
n a tiv e te a c h e r s o f E F L to o , s u f f e r n o t f r o m e x p o s u r e to n o n - s ta n d a r d
E n g lis h , b u t p a r tly f r o m e x p o s u r e to n o n - a u th e n tic E n g lis h a n d p a r tly
fr o m l a c k o f e x p o s u r e to a u th e n tic s ta n d a r d E n g lis h . S im ila rly , th e r e a l
d a n g e r is n o t th a t th e s ta n d a r d s o f E n g l is h a re in a d e c lin e b u t th a t th o s e
s ta n d a r d s m a y b e to a la r g e e x te n t u n r e c o g n is e d a n d in a c c e s s ib le . T h e
w o r ld - w id e p o p u la tio n o f n o n - n a tiv e le a r n e r s c a n n o t e n c o u n te r e n o u g h
a u th e n tic s ta n d a r d E n g lis h to g a in th e in tu itiv e c o n tro l o v e r its s ta n d a rd s
th a t n a tiv e c h ild re n a c h ie v e . S ta n d a r d E n g lis h is re p re s e n te d b y a u n ifo r m
a n d s im p lif ie d v a rie ty o f n o n -a u th e n tic E n g lis h ; s ta n d a rd s a re e x c lu s iv e ly
d e f in e d in te r m s o f h a r d a n d f a s t ‘r u l e s ’ f o r e v e r y o c c a s io n . U n d e r th e s e
c o n d itio n s , th e c h a n c e s o f g e n u in e s u c c e s s h e a v ily f a v o u r le a r n e r s w h o h a v e e x te n s iv e o u ts id e e x p o s u re to a u th e n tic E n g lis h , e.g ., th ro u g h s a te llite
1 2 2 R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g i i i s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1 I a m u sin g th e te rm ‘s ta n d a rd s ’ h e r e in a p ro g ra m m a tic a lly in c lu s iv e
s e n s e w h ic h I h o ld to b e ju s tif ie d a n d r e a lis tic to th e d e g re e th a t th e s e s ta n d a r d s a re d o c u m e n te d b y la r g e s e ts o f a u th e n tic E n g lis h a n d n o t j u s t
a s s e r te d o u t o f p e r s o n a l a ttitu d e s a b o u t c o r r e c tn e s s o r p ro p r ie ty . T h e y
a r e s u s ta in e d b y t h e p re f e r e n c e s o f f lu e n t s p e a k e r s o r w rite rs f o r c e r ta in
a r r a y s o f le x ic a l a n d g ra m m a tic a l c h o ic e s f r o m a m o n g th e im m e n s e ly la r g e r s e t o f th e o r e tic a lly p o s s ib le c h o ic e s T h e s e in c lu d e n o t j u s t th e
c h o ic e s s tip u la te d b y ‘g r a m m a r ’ a n d ‘v o c a b u la r y ’ in th e ir ro u tin e s e n s e s ,
b u t a ls o s ty lis tic a n d r h e to r ic a l c h o ic e s , a s w e ll a s c h o ic e s s tip u la te d b y
g e n re , re g is te r, a n d te x t ty p e s. T h e s e s ta n d a rd s c o -o r d in a te s e ts o f c h o ic e s ,
so t h a t w h a t is c h o s e n a t o n e p o in t m a k e s c e r ta in c h o ic e s a t o th e r p o in ts
m o r e p ro b a b le . O n ly th e m o re o b v io u s a n d r e g u la r s ta n d a rd s a re r e f le c te d in te x tb o o k s r e ly in g o n n o n - a u th e n tic E n g l is h i llu s tr a te d a b o v e , s u c h a s
th e m a jo r p a tte r n s o f th e E n g lis h N o u n P h r a s e . S o , le a r n e r p e r f o r m a n c e te n d s to f e a tu re n o n - a u th e n tic E n g l is h to o , w h ic h , h o w e v e r d u ll, s e e m s
sa fe .
W h e r e th e s ta n d a r d s a re c o m p r e h e n s iv e ly r e f le c te d is in s u ita b ly
s e a r c h e d a n d s o r te d a tte s ta tio n s o f a u th e n tic E n g lis h in la rg e c o r p o r a . T h e ir p o te n tia l f o r la n g u a g e te a c h in g is th u s s te a d ily g a in in g re c o g n itio n ,
w itn e s s s o m e r e c e n t c o lle c tio n s a n d e d ite d v o lu m e s (e .g . B o tle y , G la s s , M c E n e r y , a n d W ils o n , 1 9 9 6 ; W ic h m a n n , F lig e ls to n e , M c E n e r y , a n d
K n o w l e s , 1 9 9 7 ; B u r n a r d a n d M c E n e r y , 2 0 0 0 ; L e w a n d o w s k a -
T o m a s z c z y k , a n d M e li a , 2 0 0 0 ; G h a d e s s y , H e n ry , a n d R o s e b e ry , 2 0 0 1 ).
F r o m a p ra c tic a l sta n d p o in t, th e ‘c o n v e r g e n c e ’ e n v isio n e d b y L e e c h (1 9 9 7 )
b e t w e e n ‘la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g ’ a n d ‘l a n g u a g e c o r p o r a ’ w a s p r o b a b l y in e v ita b le in v ie w o f th e m a n if e s t p r a c tic a l v a lu e o f c o r p o r a f o r ‘d a ta -
d r iv e n le a r n in g ’ (W illis , 1 99 3; J o h n s , 1 9 9 4 ). T h e v a lu e is p la in e s t in a re a s
o f s tu d y w h e re w e a r e c o m p e lle d to w o r k w ith a g r e a t d e a l o f d a ta , s u c h
as s ty le (J a c k s o n , 1 9 9 7 ), r e g is te r ( B ib e r, 1 9 9 4 ), g e n re ( C a m e , 1 9 9 6 ),
a n d o f c o u r s e lite r a tu r e (K o w it a n d C a r r o ll, 1 9 9 1 ; L o u w , 1 9 9 7 ).
F r o m a th e o r e tic a l s ta n d p o in t, h o w e v e r , w e a re still f a r f r o m a
c o n v e r g e n c e in o u r th in k i n g a b o u t h o w c o r p u s d a ta c a n o r s h o u ld tr a n s f o r m b o th th e o r y a n d p r a c tic e o f la n g u a g e te a c h in g (c f. d is c u s s io n s
in A s to n , 1 9 9 5 ; B a r lo w , 1 9 9 5 ; T o g n in i B o n e lli 1 9 9 6 ). C o rp u s d a ta h a v e lo n g b e e n u s e d in s tu d ie s o f la n g u a g e , b u t th e s e w e re n o t d e s ig n e d f o r
th e g o a l o f te a c h in g n o n -n a tiv e s. S u c h w a s tru e o f c o rp u s d a ta f o r re s e a rc h in 1 9 lh-c e n tu r y p h ilo lo g y o n E u r o p e a n d ia le c ts (e .g . W e n c k e r, 1 8 8 7 -9 5 )
R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g ü í s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1 1 2 3 K u ra th , 1 9 4 9 ) a n d o n N a tiv e A m e r ic a n la n g u a g e s (e .g . S a p ir, 1 9 2 2 ).
T h is w o r k w a s e m in e n tly p r a c tic e - d r iv e n ; th e o r y s p o ra d ic a lly to o k s h a p e in h ig h e r - le v e l s ta te m e n ts a b o u t la n g u a g e ty p e s , a s in S a p i r ’s (1 9 2 1 )
a m b itio u s ‘c l a s s if ic a t io n ’ o f la n g u a g e s .3
A s s o m e w rite rs o n c o r p u s w o r k h a v e r e m a r k e d (e .g . M c E n e r y
a n d W ils o n , 1 9 9 6 ), c o r p u s s tu d ie s u n d e r w e n t a p e r io d o f e c lip s e in th e 1 9 6 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0 s . ‘D e s c r ip tiv e ’ m e th o d s w e r e s u b s ta n tia lly d is p la c e d b y
‘g e n e r a tiv e ’ o n e s ; a n d lin g u is tic s tr a n s f o r m e d its s u b je c t m a tte r a w a y f r o m d a ta s e ts in p a r tic u la r la n g u a g e s (p lu r a l, c o u n t n o u n ) o v e r to a s in g le
th e o ry e m b o d ie d in la n g u a g e (s in g u la r, m a s s n o u n ) (cf. B e a u g ra n d e , 1 9 9 1 ,
1 9 9 8 ). A s a n in te g r a l s te p in th is tr a n s f o r m a tio n , i t w a s a rg u e d th a t
‘a tte m p tin g to s ta te m e th o d s o f a n a ly s is th a t a n in v e s tig a to r m ig h t a c tu a lly u s e , i f h e h a d th e tim e ’, f o r ‘c o n s tr u c tin g th e g ra m m a r, g iv e n a c o r p u s o f
u tte r a n c e s ’ , m u s t ‘fa il to p r o v id e a n s w e r s to m a n y im p o r ta n t q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e n a tu r e o f lin g u is tic s t r u c tu r e ’ ( C h o m s k y , 1 9 5 7 : 5 1 ff).
F o r u s , th e k e y r e s e r v a tio n to r e c a l l w a s th a t ‘th e c o r p u s o f o b s e r v e d u t t e r a n c e s ’ ‘o b ta in e d b y th e lin g u is t in h is f ie ld w o r k ’ is ‘'fin ite
a n d s o m e w h a t a c c i d e n t a l' ( C h o m s k y , 1 9 5 7 : 1 5, m y e m p h a s is ) . T h is re s e r v a tio n w a s a c c e p te d a t f a c e v a lu e w ith o u t n o tic in g th a t i t h o ld s f o r
e v e ry s e t o f o b s e r v a tio n s a n d e v e ry s e t o f d a ta in e v e ry s c ie n c e . W h a te v e r
a s c ie n c e o r s c ie n tis t h a s ‘o b s e r v e d ’ m u s t b e ‘f i n i t e ’ ; a n d ‘d a ta ’ a re , b o th b y d e f in itio n a n d b y e ty m o lo g y , ‘th e g i v e n ’, a n d c a n n o t b e o th e r th a n
fin ite.
A n d lin g u is tic s is a fte r all n o t a s c ie n c e o f th e in fin ite . I f a la n g u a g e w e r e a n ‘i n f i n ite s e t o f s e n te n c e s ’ (C h o m s k y , 1 9 5 7 : 1 3 ), th e n th e a c t o f
u tte rin g o r c o m p r e h e n d in g a s e n te n c e w o u ld r e q u ir e in f in ite s e a rc h tim e s.
M o r e o v e r , ‘p e r f o r m a n c e ’ w o u ld b e r e la te d to ‘c o m p e t e n c e ’ in p u r e ly
a c c id e n ta l w a y s , j u s t a s, in th e f a m ilia r p a ra b le , a ro o m f u l o f c h im p a n z e e s
w ith ty p e w r ite r s w o u ld , in in f in ite tim e , w r ite th e w o rk s o f S h a k e s p e a r e . (T h e y w o u ld a ls o ty p e th e B r itis h N a tio n a l C o rp u s a n d th e C O B U I L D
B a n k o f E n g l is h .) S u c h f a n c if u l q u ib b le s a n d q u id d itie s in h e r e in th e m a th e m a tic a lly p r o p e r m e a n in g o f th e ‘i n f i n ite ’, w h ic h s u p p lie s p o e tic
1 2 4 R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g U i s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1 a n d p h ilo s o p h ic a l la b y r in th s fo r w r ite r s lik e J o rg e L u is B o rg e s b u t m e r it
n o p l a c e in th e th e o r y o f la n g u a g e ,
A la n g u a g e m u s t r a th e r b e a v e r y la r g e b u t a lw a y s f i n i t e s e t o f d a t a. T h is se t c a n n e v e r a ll b e o b s e r v e d a n y m o r e th a n c a n th e s e t o f p a r tic le c o llis io n s in p h y s ic s o r th e s e t o f s u p e r n o v a s in a s tro n o m y . N o r
c a n t h e w h o le s e t b e c o n s is te n tly d e s c r ib e d b y a n y s in g le d e f in itio n o f ‘s e n te n c e ’, w h ic h is a re lia b le u n it o n ly in re fe re n c e to th e c la u se s tru c tu re s
o f w r itt e n la n g u a g e ( B e a u g r a n d e , 1 9 9 9 ). A n d le a s t o f a ll c o u ld s u c h a s e t
b e r e p r e s e n te d b y th e n o n - a u th e n tic s e n te n c e s o f ‘th e m a n h it th e b a l l 5
ty p e p r e f e r r e d b y g e n e r a tiv e lin g u is ts f o r th e ir c o m p lic a te d a n a ly s e s , as I
n o te d i n s e c tio n 1.
S c ie n tis ts w h o w o r k w ith v e r y la r g e d a ta s e ts m u s t m a n a g e a
t r a d e - o f f b e tw e e n b r e a d th (h o w m u c h d a ta a th e o r y c a n d e s c r ib e ) a n d
d e p t h ( w h a t d e g re e s o f d e ta il a n d p r e c is io n th e d e s c r ip tio n c a n a c h ie v e ) . E a r ly c o r p u s stu d ie s o f fa m ilia r la n g u a g e s (e .g . o n s p e e c h v a rie tie s ) c o u ld a im a t th e s w e e p in g b r e a d th o f W e n c k e r ’s ‘la n g u a g e a tla s 7 o r K u r a th ’s
‘w o r d g e o g r a p h y ’ b e c a u s e th e s tr u c tu r e o f th e la n g u a g e w a s in a n y c a s e
u n d e r c o n tr o l. B u t c o r p u s s tu d ie s o f a n u n f a m ilia r la n g u a g e s , e .g . th e Y a n a l a n g u a g e o f N o r t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a d e s c r i b e d b y S a p ir , h a d to
c o n c e n tr a te o n d e p th to w o rk o u t ‘f u n d a m e n ta l e le m e n ts ’ o f th e s tr u c tu r e u n d e r c o n tr o l, a n d th e b re a d th w a s c o r r e s p o n d in g ly lim ite d . Y e t i f th is
‘lim it a ti o n - in - p r i n c ip le to c la s s if ic a tio n a n d o r g a n iz a tio n o f d a t a ’ fr o m a ‘c o r p u s o f o b s e r v e d s p e e c h ’ ‘e s t a b l i s h e s ’ th e ‘i n a d e q u a c y ’ o f th e
d e s c r ip ti o n ( C h o m s k y 1 96 5; 15, 6 7 ) , th e n ‘a d e q u a c y ’ m u s t h a v e s o m e o d d m e a n in g , as w e w ill in f a c t see in a m o m e n t. I c a n n o t u n d e r s ta n d .
N o w , i f a la n g u a g e w e re a n in f i n ite s e t, th e n its d e s c r ip tio n w o u ld
e n t a i l a n i n f i n ite b r e a d t h th a t f l a t t e n s o u t o u r d e p th to a n i n f i n i t e
s h a llo w n e s s , a n d o u r d e s c rip tio n ( c o m p le te d in in fin ite tim e , b y th e w a y )
w o u l d c a p tu r e o n ly i n f i n i t e s i m a l d e t a i l a n d p r e c i s i o n . I n p r a c t i c e , g e n e r a tiv e lin g u is tic s e v a d e d its o w n ‘i n f i n i t y ’ a rg u m e n t a g a in s t c o r p u s
s tu d ie s b y ‘a s s u m in g th a t th e s e t o f g r a m m a tic a l s e n te n c e s is s o m e h o w g iv e n i n a d v a n c e ’ ( C h o m s k y 1 9 5 7 : 1 8 , 5 4 , 8 5 , 1 0 3 ). B r e a d t h w a s
h y p o th e tic a l, b u ilt in to th e th e o ry b y f o c u s in g o n th e ‘id e a l s p e a k e r-
h e a r e r in a c o m p le te ly h o m o g e n e o u s s p e e c h - c o m m u n ity , w h o k n o w s its la n g u a g e p e r f e c t ly ’ ; a n d o n ‘la n g u a g e u n iv e r s a ls ’ ‘s ta te d o n ly in g e n e r a l lin g u is tic th e o ry as p a r t o f th e d e fin itio n o f th e n o tio n “h u m a n la n g u a g e ’”
( C h o m s k y , 1 9 6 5 : 4 , 6 , 1 1 7 ), B r e a d th in th e s e n s e I s u g g e s t d id n o t s e e m
R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g ü í s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1 1 2 5 w ith j u s t 2 4 n o n - a u th e n tic E n g lis h s e n te n c e s (o r ‘tr a n s f o r m a tio n s ’ o f
th e s e ).
S c ie n c e a ls o e n lis ts te c h n o lo g ie s to c o p e w ith a c c id e n ts in o u r d ata, m o s t c ru c ia lly a t fro n tie rs w h e re w e c a n 't y e t d istin g u is h th e a c c id e n ts fr o m th e r e g u la r itie s . W e s c a n th e c o llis io n s in lin e a r a c c e le r a to r s fo r e v a n e s c e n t p a r tic le s a t th e f r o n tie r s o f p h y s ic s ; w e tra in o u r te le s c o p e s
o n in v is ib le p la n e ts a ffe c tin g n e a rb y sta rs in d e te c ta b le w a y s a t th e fro n tie rs o f a s tr o n o m y ; a n d w e p e r u s e o u r m o n ito r s o r p r in t- o u ts f o r u n its o r p a tte r n s o f a la n g u a g e a tte s te d in v e r y la r g e c o r p o r a a t th e fr o n tie r s o f lin g u is tic s.
A ll a c r o s s s c ie n c e , th e m o re s ig n ific a n t th e p o te n tia l f o r a c c id e n ts, th e g r e a te r t h e b r e a th w e s h o u ld s e e k , a n d th e m o re w e d e p lo y th o s e
te c h n o lo g ie s t h a t in c r e a s e b r e a d th w ith o u t s e r io u s ly d e c r e a s in g d e p th . W e m a y th e r e b y p u s h d o w n th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f a n y p a r tic u la r a c c id e n t (o r s e t o f a c c id e n ts ) b y m e a s u r in g its p r o b a b ility . S h o u ld th e p r o b a b ility r e m a in h ig h , t h e n w e a re d e a lin g w ith a r e g u la r ity th a t h a d b e e n m is ta k e n f o r a n a c c id e n t.
T h e r e tu r n o f la r g e c o r p o r a o f a u th e n tic la n g u a g e to th e c e n tr e o f la n g u a g e s tu d y th u s im p e ls u s to r e o p e n th e w h o le d is c u s s io n o f th e o r y a n d p r a c tic e . I n th a t s p irit, S in c la ir ( 1 9 9 9 a , 1 9 9 9 b ) h a s r e c e n tly p r o b e d
th e c o n c e p ts o f ‘o b s e r v a tio n a l’, ‘d e s c r ip tiv e ’, a n d ‘e x p la n a to ry a d e q u a c y ’ in tr o d u c e d b y g e n e r a tiv e lin g u is tic s (e .g . C h o m s k y , 1 9 6 4 , 1 9 6 5 ). T h e f ir s t tw o o f t h e s e h a d b e e n s to u tly a f f ir m e d in e a r ly c o r p u s lin g u is tic s ,
a lth o u g h n o t u n d e r s u c h p r o g r a m m a t i c la b e l s . O b s e r v a tio n w a s a n o p e r a tio n o f r e c o r d in g d a ta so as to s u s ta in v a lid ity a n d r ig o u r d e s p ite th e la c k o f te c h n o lo g y . D e s c r ip tio n w a s a th o r o u g h p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e o b s e r v e d f a c ts , e .g ., b y d ra w in g m a p s to lo c a te th e d is tin c t d ia le c t fo r m s
in th e r e s p e c tiv e r e g io n s .
E x p l a n a t i o n r e m a i n e d a s e p a r a t e a n d s p o r a d i c i s s u e , s in c e
q u e s tio n s a b o u t w h y a la n g u a g e a s s u m e s a g iv e n f o r m o r e v o lu tio n w e r e rig h tly ju d g e d in tra c ta b le . A t m o st, lin g u is ts h o p e d th a t e x p la n a tio n s w o u ld e v e n tu a lly a r r iv e , v iz .: ‘b a c k o f th e f a c e o f th e h is to ry a re p o w e r f u l d rif ts th a t m o v e la n g u a g e , lik e o th e r s o c ia l p r o d u c ts , to b a la n c e d p a t t e r n s ’ ; ‘p e r h a p s p s y c h o lo g i s ts o f th e f u t u r e ’ w ill f in d ‘th e u ltim a te r e a s o n s ’ (S a p ir, 1 9 2 1 :1 2 2 ) . T h e r e a l th e o re tic a l s ig n if ic a n c e o f e a r ly c o r p u s w o rk a d h e r e d in th e p r o g r a m m a tic a c k n o w le d g e m e n t o f th e im p o r ta n c e o f la n g u a g e s o r d ia le c ts th a t h a d h ith e r to b e e n re g a r d e d as c u r io s itie s o r d e g r a d a tio n s , m u c h as le a r n e r E n g lis h e s a re re g a r d e d in s o m e q u a r te r s
1 2 6 R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g ü í s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1 T h e g e n e r a t i v e a p p r o a c h e x p r e s s l y d is a v o w e d o b s e r v a tio n a l
a d e q u a c y b y a n n o u n c in g th a t th e ‘o b s e r v e d u s e o f la n g u a g e ’ ‘su re ly c a n n o t
c o n s t i t u t e th e s u b je c t- m a tte r o f l i n g u i s t i c s ’ (C h o m s k y , 1 9 6 5 : 4 ). S o ‘d e s c r i p t i v e ’ a n d ‘e x p l a n a t o r y ’ a d e q u a c y ’ w e r e c o n s ig n e d to g o a ls
r e q u ir in g n o o b s e r v a tio n , n a m e ly ‘d e s c r ib in g th e in tr in s ic c o m p e t e n c e ’
a n d ‘i n tu iti o n ’ o f th e ‘id e a liz e d n a tiv e s p e a k e r ’ (C h o m s k y , 1 9 6 5 : 3 4 , 2 6 ) . Y e t d e s p ite a m b itio u s c la im s , in tu itio n is a w e a k , o p p o r tu n is tic
te c h n iq u e . In s te a d o f a c tiv e ly o b s e r v in g d a ta , o n e p a s s iv e ly r a te s th e
p la u s ib ility o f d a ta o n e p ro d u c e s f o r th e o c c a s io n . T o ju d g e b y th e s a m p le s in p u b l i s h e d s tu d ie s , in tu itio n h e a v ily f a v o u r s w h a t I h a v e la b e lle d n o n -
a u th e n t ic d a ta . A n d j u s t as n o n - a u th e n tic s a m p le s c a n n o t b e a n a d e q u a te
b a s is f o r le a r n in g t h e la n g u a g e , n e ith e r c a n th e y b e a n a d e q u a te b a s is fo r d e s c r ib in g th e l a n g u a g e n o r f o r e x p la in in g ‘l a n g u a g e ’ in th e a b s tr a c t.
I n th e n e w c o r p u s lin g u is tic s , o b s e r v a tio n a l a d e q u a c y is o u r o p e r a tio n a l fr o n t e n d , w h e r e w e d e p e n d m o s t c ru c ia lly o n o u r te c h n iq u e s
a n d te c h n o lo g y . L a r g e c o rp o ra o f f e r u s s u c h im m e n s e b r e a d th th a t d e p th c a n b e m a n a g e d o n ly b y in c o rp o ra tin g o u r te c h n iq u e s in to o u r te c h n o lo g y
— h a r n e s s in g th e c o m p u te r f o r th e d e s c r ip tiv e s ta g e as w e ll. T h e k e y
q u e s ti o n h e r e is w h a t m o d e a n d d e g r e e o f d e p th to lo o k fo r. W e c a n n o t
s im p ly re -o p e n th e p r o g r a m m e o f e a r ly c o rp u s lin g u is tic s in s o f a r a s w e d o n o t s h a r e its g o a ls o f d e s c rib in g e ith e r u n f a m ilia r la n g u a g e s o r d ia le c ts
o f f a m ilia r la n g u a g e s . S till le ss c a n w e e m b r a c e th e p r o g r a m m e o f r e c e n t n o n - c o r p u s lin g u is tic s in q u e s t o f ‘lin g u is tic u n iv e r s a is ’, w h ic h a re n o t
e v e n e x p e c te d to f i t la rg e d a ta s e ts , v iz .: ‘i f s o m e re m a r k a b le f la s h o f
in s i g h t w e re s u d d e n ly to y ie ld th e a b s o lu te ly tr u e th e o r y o f u n iv e r s a l
g r a m m a r ’, ‘it w o u ld b e a t o n c e “r e f u te d ” b y in n u m e r a b le [in f in ite !? ]
o b s e r v a tio n s f r o m a w id e r a n g e o f la n g u a g e s ’ (C h o m s k y , 1 9 8 0 : 2 ). T h e p r o g r a m m e o f c o rp u s lin g u is tic s m ig h t d o w e ll to s h e lv e th e
p r i n c i p l e o f e x p l a n a t o r y a d e q u a c y a s l o n g a s t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f
‘e x p la n a tio n ’ e lu d e s a n d o p e ra tio n a l d e fin itio n . A m o re tr a c ta b le p rin c ip le a t p r e s e n t w o u ld b e a p p lic a to r y a d e q u a c y : h o w f a r o u r w o r k is f o u n d s u i t a b l e a n d p r o d u c t i v e f o r r e l e v a n t a p p lic a tio n s . S o fa r, t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l a p p lic a tio n s , w h ic h h a v e in f a c t q u ic k ly b e c o m e th e in d u s tr y s ta n d a r d , h a v e b e e n a c h ie v e d in r e f e r e n c e w o rk s , s u c h as d ic tio n a r ie s o f
w o r d s , id io m s , p h r a s a l v e r b s , a n d s o o n . S e le c t in g e n tr ie s b y th e ir f r e q u e n c y o f a tte s ta tio n re n d e rs th e b r e a th o f c o v e r a g e f u lly o p e r a tio n a l,
R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g ü í s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1 1 2 7 ‘in v o lv in g m u c h l a b o u r ’, o r ‘m o n o p s o n y 1 f o r a ‘m a r k e t c o n d itio n w ith
o n e b u y e r a n d a la rg e n u m b e r o f s e l l e r s ’ { R a n d o m W e b s te r 9 4 8 , 8 7 7 ) .2 E n g l is h h a s a c c u m u la te d a p e c u l i a r m a s s o f th e s e te r m s , w h ic h a re
e s p e c ia lly n o n - a u th e n tic in n e v e r b e in g u s e d in re a l- lif e c o n v e r s a tio n .
In p a r a lle l, d e p th b e c o m e o p e r a tio n a l as m o re p re c is e in fo r m a tio n o n u s a g e , s u c h a s n o tin g w h ic h V e rb s a re f r e q u e n tly u s e d o n ly in th e
A c tiv e (e .g . ‘e l u d e ’) o r o n ly in th e P a s s iv e (e .g . ‘c o n s tr u e ’) { C O B U I L D
4 5 8 , 3 0 2 ) 4 . W e d o n o t a s s e r t th a t u s in g s u c h V erb s th e o th e r w a y r o u n d
c o u n ts a s ‘e r r o r ’, b u t th a t it is n o t e x p e c te d . In m y o w n 1 0 -m illio n - w o r d c o rp u s o f B r itis h a n d A m e r ic a n w rite rs d a tin g ro u g h ly b e tw e e n 1 7 5 0 a n d
1 9 2 0 ,5 I f o u n d o n ly 2 o u t o f 7 4 u s e s o f ‘e l u d e ’ in th e P a s s iv e :
[21] th e y le s s e n th e c o n s u m p tio n ; th e c o lle c tio n is e lu d e d : a n d th e p r o d u c t
to th e tr e a s u r y is n o t so g r e a t ( A le x a n d e r H a m ilto n )
[2 2 ] M y im p o r tu n itie s w o u ld n o t n o w b e e lu d e d ( C h a r le s B r o c k to n B ro w n )
B u t 21 o u t o f 5 9 u s e s o f ‘c o n s tr u e ’ w e r e f o u n d in th e A c tiv e , n o t j u s t in th e c u r r e n t s e n s e o f ‘in te r p r e t’ [2 3 ] b u t a ls o th e s e n s e s o f ‘tr a n s la t e ’
[2 4 ] o r ‘in te r p r e t s o m e th in g in to s o m e th in g e l s e ’ [2 5 ] — n e ith e r o f w h ic h I w o u ld u s e n o w a d a y s .
[2 3] T h is b e h a v io u r in h e r n ie c e th e g o o d la d y c o n s tr u e d to b e an a b s o lu te b r e a c h ( F ie ld in g )
[2 4 ] h e r e c a lle d th e s h r e w d n o r th e r n f a c e o f th e r e c to r w h o h a d ta u g h t h im to c o n s tr u e th e M e ta m o r p h o s e s o f O v id in a c o u rtly E n g lis h (Jo y c e) [2 5] S h e ’s a n e x c ita b le , n e rv o u s p e r s o n : s h e c o n s tr u e d h e r d r e a m in to a n
a p p a r itio n ( C h a r lo tte B r o n te )
4 T h is i n f o r m a tio n d o e s n o t a p p e a r f o r th e s e s a m e e n tr ie s in th e 1 9 91 R a n d o m H o u s e W e b s t e r ’s C o l l e g e D i c t i o n a r y > e v e n th o u g h t h e la tte r is ‘f o u n d e d ’ o n a ‘la r g e d a t a b a s e ’ ( 4 3 5 , 2 9 2 , v ii).
1 2 8 R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g ü í s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1 S u c h f in d in g s h ig h lig h t th e h is to r ic a l d im e n s io n o f a u th e n tic ity ,
t h e m o r e so f o r E F L p r o g r a m m e s th a t f o c u s o n lite r a tu r e , w h ic h I s h a ll
d is c u s s fu r th e r o n .
C o r p u s - b a s e d re f e r e n c e w o r k s a ls o o f f e r an o p e ra tio n a l m e a s u r e o f a p p lic a to r y a d e q u a c y f o r d e s c r ip tio n in te rm s o f s u ita b ility f o r a re a l
a u d ie n c e , in c lu d in g n o n -n a tiv e s p e a k e r s . C o m p a r e th e s e d e fin itio n s :
[2 6 ] h y d ro p o n ic s : th e g r o w in g o f p la n ts in n u tr ie n t s o lu tio n s w ith o r
w ith o u t a n i n e r t m e d iu m to p r o v i d e m e c h a n ic a l s u p p o r t (W e b s te r ’s S e v e n th 4 0 8 ) 6
[2 7 ] h y d r o p o n ic s is a m e th o d o f g r o w in g p la n ts in w a te r r a th e r th a n in s o il { C O B U I L D 7 1 4 )
In c o n v e n tio n a l d ic tio n a r ie s , d e f in itio n s h a v e b e e n a u th o r e d b y
s p e c ia lis ts in th e f ie ld . [2 6] w a s e v id e n tly c o m p o s e d b y a b o ta n is t — te c h n i c a lly c o r r e c t b u t a c c e s s ib le o n ly to o th e r s p e c ia lis ts , w h o w o u ld
u n d e r s ta n d h o w a n ‘in e r t m e d iu m ’ c a n ‘p r o v id e m e c h a n ic a l s u p p o r t5 to a
c r o p o f to m a to e s ( a n d w h o w o u ld k n o w th e m e a n in g o f ‘h y d r o p o n ic s ’ a n y w a y ) . [27] c le a r s a w a y th e te c h n ic a litie s a n d e x p la in s th e e s s e n tia ls f o r o r d in a r y p e o p le .
T o b e s u r e , d ic tio n a r ie s r e p r e s e n t th e m o s t th o ro u g h ly p r a c tic a l a p p lic a tio n o f c o r p u s stu d ie s. T h e th e o r y is s p a r s e a n d s tr a ig h tfo rw a rd : a la n g u a g e c an b e re p re s e n te d b y a s u b s e t o f e x p re s s io n s w h o s e o c c u rre n c e s
in a v e r y la rg e c o r p u s re a c h a s p e c if ie d c u t- o f f p o in t; th a t q u a n tity o f o c c u r r e n c e s is s u f f ic ie n t to d e te r m in e th e m e a n in g ; a n d th e d e f in itio n s a re to b e illu s tr a te d w ith a u th e n tic d a ta , w h ic h a re ‘e x a m p le s o f g o o d p r a c t i c e ’ f o r ‘s p e a k in g a n d w r itin g th e E n g lis h o f t o d a y ’ ( C O B U I L D
x v ). T h e d ic tio n a ry c a n im p o s e a u th e n tic ity w ith o u t h a v in g to e x p la in its
n a t u r e n o r d e f e n d i t a g a in s t th e o r e tic a l o r a p p lie d lin g u is ts w h o d e a l in n o n - a u th e n tic d a ta .
Y et th e th e o re tic a l im p lic a tio n s o f a u th e n tic ity su re ly e x te n d m u c h fu rth e r. W e m u st d e c id e w h e th e r c o rp u s stu d ie s w ill b e fitte d to e s ta b lis h e d d e s c r ip tio n s a n d c a te g o r ie s o f lin g u is tic s ; o r w h e th e r th e f o u n d a tio n s o f lin g u is tic s w ill h a v e to b e re v is e d in lig h t o f c o rp u s stu d ie s (T o g n in i B o n e lli,
R e v , B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g ü í s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1 1 2 9 19 9 6; S in c la ir 1 9 9 9 ). A s w e k n o w fr o m th e w o rk o n ‘s c ie n tific r e v o lu tio n s ’
in th e p h ilo s o p h y o f s c ie n c e s in c e K u h n (1 9 7 0 ), a th e o ry is n o t d is p la c e d b y o b s e r v a tio n a lo n e b u t o n ly b y a n o th e r th e o ry w h ic h f its o b s e r v a tio n b e tte r, o r w h ic h e n a b le s n e w a n d i m p o r ta n t o b s e r v a tio n s (e .g . K u h n ,
1 9 7 0 ). N o w , i f th e f a c to r o f a u th e n tic ity is so c ru c ia l f o r o b s e r v a tio n a n d
d e s c r ip tio n a s I a m s u g g e s tin g , th e n lin g u is tic s a n d a p p lie d lin g u is tic s s h o u l d b r a c e t h e m s e l v e s f o r a m a j o r s c i e n t i f i c r e v o l u t i o n w h o s e r e p e r c u s s io n s w ill in e v ita b ly b e f e lt in T E F L . In e x c h a n g e , T E F L c a n
o f f e r o u r b e s t r e s o u r c e s f o r m e a s u r in g th e a p p lic a to r y a d e q u a c y o f n e w
th e o rie s .
T h e u p c o m in g ‘p a r a d ig m s h i f t ' c a n b e p r e d ic te d to tr a n s f o r m th e e n tire c o n c e p t o f a la n g u a g e : n o t a s t a t i c s y s te m o f u n its ( p h o n e m e s , m o r p h e m e s , p h r a s e s , s e n te n c e s , e tc .) b u t a d y n a m ic s y s te m o f r e la tio n s .
In s te a d o f a d ic h o to m y b e tw e e n ‘la n g u e a n d p a r o le 5 o r ‘c o m p e te n c e a n d p e r f o r m a n c e 5, w e c a n r e c o g n is e a d ia le c tic a l c y c le b e tw e e n c o m b in a b ility
( la n g u a g e a s p o te n tia l s y s te m ) a n d c o m b in a tio n ( te x t a s a c tu a l s y s te m ). A n d in s te a d o f s e p a r a tin g a ‘g r a m m a r 5 o f ‘r u l e s ’ f r o m a ‘v o c a b u la r y ’ (o r ‘le x ic o n ’) o f ‘w o r d s ’, w e c a n e x p lo r e th e u n ifie d le x i c o g r a m m a r f o r th e ty p ic a l g r a m m a tic a l c o m b in a tio n s c a ll e d c o llig a tio n s a n d th e le x ic a l c o m b in a tio n s c a lle d c o llo c a tio n s .
S o m e o f th e s e c o n c e p tio n s a n d te r m s h a v e b e e n w ith u s f o r q u ite
s o m e ti m e , b u t th e ir ‘r e v o lu tio n a r y ’ i m p a c t c e n tr e s o n f u lly r e c o g n is in g a u th e n tic ity to b e th e f u n d a m e n ta l p r e c o n d itio n a n d c o n s ta n t r e q u ir e m e n t f o r o b s e r v a t i o n a n d d e s c r i p t i o n to a c h i e v e a p p l i c a t o r y a d e q u a c y .
A u th e n tic ity is f ir s t o f a ll a n e m p ir ic a l p r o p e r ty o f d a ta c e r tif ie d b y th e ir o c c u r r e n c e in a c o n te x t o f s itu a tio n . B u t a u th e n tic ity c a n b e c o m e a p r o p e r ty o f a n a p p lic a b le th e o r y o r d e s c r ip tio n o n ly i f s o m e c h a lle n g in g
p r o b le m s c a n b e s o lv e d .
I s h o u ld e m p h a s is e a t o n c e th a t th e s e p r o b le m s d o n o t a r is e f r o m p r in c ip le d w e a k n e s s e s in h e r e n t in c o r p o r a , d e s p ite w h a t is c o n s is te n tly a lle g e d b y th o s e w h o o p p o s e th e u s e o f c o r p u s r e s e a r c h in a p p lie d
lin g u is tic s in la n g u a g e te a c h in g (e .g . W id d o w s o n 1 9 9 1 ). R a th e r, th e y a re p r o b le m s w h ic h h a v e b e e n in h e r e n t i n la n g u a g e r e s e a r c h a n d la n g u a g e
te a c h in g a ll a lo n g b u t w h ic h c o r p u s s tu d ie s a llo w u s to r e c o g n is e a n d fo r m u la te . T h e c o rp u s r a is e s q u e s tio n s r a r e ly p o s e d , le t a lo n e a n s w e r e d ,
in m a in s tr e a m lin g u is tic s , s u c h as:
(a ) H o w b ig is a la n g u a g e ?
1 3 0 R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g i i i s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1 (b ) W h a t is its r a tio b e tw e e n r e g u la r ity a n d a c c id e n t?
(d ) H o w m u c h d a ta is e n o u g h f o r th e d e s c r ip tio n o f a la n g u a g e ?
In s te a d , lin g u is tic s h a s p r o p a g a te d r e a s s u r in g a b s tr a c tio n s a n d
g e n e r a litie s , e .g .: ‘la n g u a g e 5 is ‘lik e a d ic tio n a ry o f w h ic h id e n tic a l c o p ie s
h a v e b e e n d is tr ib u te d to e a c h i n d iv id u a l' (S a u s s u r e , 1 9 6 6 [ 1 9 1 6 ] : 19 );
o r ‘lin g u is tic th e o r y ' is ‘c o n c e r n e d ’ w ith a ‘c o m p le te ly h o m o g e n e o u s
s p e e c h - c o m m u n ity ’ (C h o m s k y , 1 9 6 5 : 4 ). L a n g u a g e is d e c la r e d to b e
u n i f o r m w ith o u t e v e n b r in g in g f o r th a u th e n tic d a ta . C o rp u s s tu d ie s d e n y
u s t h is e a s y r e a s s u r a n c e .
I w o u ld m a k e a s im ila r p o i n t f o r a p p lie d lin g u is tic s a n d T E F L .
T h e p r o b le m s in s e ttin g u p a n d a p p ly in g c o r p o r a r e f le c t p r io r in d e c is io n s
a b o u t th e w o rld - w id e m is s io n a n d a u d ie n c e o f E F L in s o f a r a s th e s e h a v e
b e e n s u s ta in e d b y u s in g n o n - a u th e n tic E n g lis h to p r o je c t a s im p lif ie d
u n if o r m v is io n o f th e la n g u a g e to b e ta u g h t th e s a m e w a y to e v e r y b o d y ,
e v e r y w h e r e — a n d f r o m th e s a m e te x tb o o k s . N o w th a t c o r p o r a a re
a c c e s s ib le to th e te a c h in g an d le a rn in g o f E n g lish fo r sp e c ific a lly ‘a c a d e m ic
a n d p r o f e s s io n a l p u r p o s e s ’, w e f in d o u r s e lv e s p e r p le x e d b y th e s h if t to
a u th e n t ic E n g lis h . T h e s h ift is s o d if f ic u lt n o t b e c a u s e (a s s o m e h a v e
a r g u e d ) c o rp u s d a ta d o n o t r e p r e s e n t th e E n g lis h la n g u a g e , b u t b e c a u s e
th e c o n c e p t o f ‘a u th e n tic d a ta r e p r e s e n tin g a la n g u a g e ’ h a s n o t y e t b e e n
o p e r a tio n a lly d e fin e d in la n g u a g e p e d a g o g y .
Y et w e m a y a c h ie v e m a jo r p r o g r e s s th ro u g h a p r in c ip le w e m ig h t
c a ll d i a l e c tic a l r e s o lu tio n, w h e r e b y th e p r o b le m a ris e s f r o m th e s a m e s o u r c e th a t w ill le a d to w a rd its e v e n tu a l s o lu tio n . C o rp u s s tu d ie s h a v e
b e e n e x p o s in g p r o b le m s th a t r e m a in e d im p lic it o r e x c lu d e d in n o n -c o rp u s
s tu d ie s o f la n g u a g e ; b u t th e c o r p o r a th e m s e lv e s p r o v id e th e r a w m a te r i als
f o r f in a l l y r e s o lv in g th o s e p ro b le m s .
T h e to u g h e s t p ro b le m is u n q u e s tio n a b ly th e d iv e r s ity th a t c o m e s w ith a u th e n tic ity . H o w f a r is a n y o n e s e t o f d a ta r e le v a n t to a n o th e r s e t in
th e c o r p u s , o r to th e c o rp u s as a w h o le ? W h ic h s o u rc e s o f d a ta d e s e r v e
to b e r e p r e s e n te d , a n d in w h a t p r o p o r tio n s ? In th e o ry , d iv e r s ity m ig h t b e
m a s t e r e d b y b r e a d th . A t e a c h p r o g r e s s iv e ju m p in s iz e , th e d is tin c tio n s b e tw e e n a c c id e n ts a n d r e g u la r itie s w ill b e c o m e m o r e p r e c is e ; s o m e p r e s u m e d a c c id e n ts w ill tu rn o u t to b e re g u la ritie s , a n d v ic e -v e rsa . S in c la ir
( 1 9 9 9 a ) h a s r e c e n tly a ir e d th e p r o s p e c t th a t th e ‘g e n e ric o r r e f e r e n c e c o r p u s ’ , s u c h as th e B a n k o f E n g lis h , ‘c u r r e n tly a p p r o a c h in g 5 0 0 m illio n
R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g ü í s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . I , 2 0 0 1 1 3 1 o f in d iv id u a l a u th o rs a n d te x ts ’ . B u t o f c o u rs e th e c o n c e p t o f ‘id io s y n c r a s y ’
is its e lf a n u n s o l v e d p r o b le m w ith in th e la r g e r p r o b le m o f d iv e rs ity .
A b r i e f d e m o n s tr a tio n m a y b e h e lp f u l h e re . In a p re v io u s a n a ly s is
o f th e u s e s o f th e V e rb ‘w a r r a n t’ ( B e a u g r a n d e 1 9 9 6 ), I a n a ly s e d th e 2 2 8
o c c u r re n c e s in th e B a n k o f E n g lis h (th e n a t 2 2 0 m illio n w o rd s ) a n d fo u n d j u s t 4 in c o llig a tio n w ith F ir s t P e r s o n S u b je c t, u s e d w h e n y o u w a n t to
in d ic a te y o u f e e l s u re a b o u t s o m e th in g th o u g h y o u c a n ’t p o in t to a c tu a l f a c ts . N o w , m y 1 0 -m illio n -w o rd c o r p u s o f B ritis h a n d A m e r ic a n w r ite r s
r e tu r n s 1 9 8 o c c u r r e n c e s , o f w h ic h f u ll y 7 5 s h o w th is c o llig a tio n . T h e
p r o p o r tio n s s e e m d r a m a tic u n til w e n o tic e th a t 2 5 o f th o s e a re f r o m
F i e l d i n g 's T o m J o n e s a lo n e , e.g .:
[2 8] I w a r r a n t y o u w ill n e v e r r e p e n t h a v in g th e m o n e y in to h is h a n d s . [2 9 ] W h y , y o u t h o u g h t, sir, I k n e w n o th in g o f th e m a tte r, I w a r r a n t y o u ,
a b o u t M a d a m S o p h ia .
T h is c o r p u s d is p la y e d a n a u th o r ia l id io s y n c r a s y w h ic h w o u ld b e
m is ta k e n f o r a r e g u la r ity i f w e d id n o t a tte n d to o u r s o u rc e s .
A g a i n in th e o ry , b r e a d th o f o b s e r v a tio n s h o u ld m o v e o n a s ta b le
u p w a r d c u r v e a s d a ta a re a d d e d ; b u t th e is s u e in f a c t h in g e s o n h o w n e w
d a ta r e la te o r c o m p a r e to p re v io u s d a ta . S in c e th e ‘g e n e ric c o r p u s 5 s h o u ld r e a s o n a b ly s e e k o u t a s m u c h d iv e r s ity a s is r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f a u th e n tic E n g lis h , its s ig n ific a n c e o r in fo r m a tio n v a lu e g a in s little fr o m a d d in g m o re
d a ta o f s a m e ty p e . T h is p r o b le m a p p lie s e sp e c ia lly to m a s s m e d ia , s u c h as th e p l e n t i f u l n e w s p a p e r s c o n v e n ie n tly p o s te d o n th e I n te r n e t. T h e i r
d iv e rs ity a s d a ta is r e s tr ic te d in b e in g a u th o r e d b y a re la tiv e ly s m a ll, w e ll-
tr a in e d g r o u p o f w r ite r s , a n d b e in g e d ite d b y a n e v e n s m a lle r g r o u p . T h e
to ta l e f f e c ts o f th e s e r e s tr ic tio n s u p o n th e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e q u a litie s o f th e
d a ta a re y e t to b e a s s e s s e d . I w o u ld a ls o n o te th e m a s s iv e f r e q u e n c ie s I f o u n d in th e B o E in J u ly 1 9 9 4 o f k e y - w o r d s lik e ‘d e a th ’, ‘k i l l ’, ‘m u r d e r ’ ,
‘m a s s a c r e ’ , ‘s h o o t i n g ’, ‘r o b b e r y ’, a n d ‘r a p e ’ , r e f le c tin g t h e m o r b i d in te r e s ts o f m a s s m e d ia m o r e th a n th e fr e q u e n c ie s o f a u th e n tic E n g lis h at
la rg e .
E v id e n tly , b r e a d th o f c o v e r a g e d o e s n o t m a tc h th e s iz e o f th e c o r p u s , b u t m u s t b e f a c to r e d o u t b e tw e e n s iz e a n d d iv e r s ity in r e la tio n to a u th e n tic E n g lis h . H e re , d ia le c tic a l re s o lu tio n c o u ld ap p ly : h a v in g a d m itte d
1 3 2 R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L in g iiC s tic a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1 c o lu m n is ts ) , o r b y m e d ia (e .g ., n e w s p a p e r s , m a g a z in e s , c h a t s ite s ) , o r b y p r o f e s s i o n s (e .g . d o c to r s , la w y e r s , s c ie n tis ts ). N o d o u b t w e w ill d is c o v e r
f a c t o r s th a t r e n d e r th e u s e o f c o r p o r a in l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g m o r e c o m p lic a te d b u t a ls o b e tte r s e c u r e d .
T h is p o in t a p p lie s m o s t tre n c h a n tly to th e u s e o f lite ra tu re . L ite ra ry
te x ts a r e w id e ly u s e d in E F L p r o g r a m m e s w ith o u t an o p e ra tio n a l a c c o u n t
o f th e re la tio n o f lite r a r y E n g lis h to o th e r E n g lis h e s , p a r tic u la r ly to th o s e
o f t h e le a r n e r s . S in c e c u r r e n t d e f in itio n s o f s ty le in s ty lis tic s a c c e n tu a te
th e p e rs o n a l a n d s p e c ia l q u a litie s, lite ra ry E n g lis h s h o u ld s u rp a ss all o th e rs i n its d iv e rs ity , a n d a ls o in its r e m o te n e s s fr o m n o n - a u th e n tic E n g lis h .
Q u ite p la u sib ly , le a r n e r s fa c e a d a u n tin g ju m p in o r d e r to a c c e s s lite ra ry
E n g l i s h w ith o u t a d e q u a te f lu e n c y in a u th e n tic E n g lis h .
A g a in , d ia le c tic a l r e s o lu tio n c o u ld a p p ly . L e a r n e r s c o u ld w o rk
w ith a series o f c o rp o ra o f a u th e n tic E n g lis h e x p re ss ly d e sig n e d to p ro m o te th e f lu e n c y n e e d e d f o r lite ra ry E n g lis h , w h ic h c o u ld in tu rn b e a p p ro a c h e d
t h r o u g h a s e rie s o f lite ra ry c o rp o ra a rr a n g e d in te rm s o f th e ir a c c e ss ib ility .
S o m e p rin c ip le d d e c is io n s w o u ld b e r e q u ir e d a b o u t w h ic h lite r a r y te x ts
o r t e x t ty p e s m e r it s tu d y w ith in th e lim its o f a g iv e n p r o g r a m m e fo rm a t. Y e t th a t th is a p p r o a c h c o u ld m a te r ia lly in c r e a s e th e r a n g e o f lite r a tu r e w e c o u l d e ffe c tiv e ly c o v e r in p r a c tic e .
I f th e b re a d th o f an a p p lic a b le d e s c rip tio n c re a te s to u g h p ro b le m s , d e p th c re a te s e v e n m o re . A lre a d y a t th is sta g e , w e c a n see th e h o p e le s s n e s s
o f a n y c u t- o f f in d e p th a n a lo g o u s to th e c u t- o f f in b re a d th d e r iv e d f r o m r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c ie s in s u c h a p p lic a tio n s a s d ic tio n a r ie s . H o w d e e p a
d e s c rip tio n s h o u ld e x te n d w ill flu c tu a te s h a rp ly a c ro ss a v e ry la rg e c o rp u s.
F r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r re n c e is b y n o m e a n s a re lia b le in d ic a to r o f a p p ro p ria te
d e p th , th o u g h s o m e w o r k in g r a tio m a y e v e n tu a lly b e d e te r m in e d .
F o r d e p th , o u r g re a te s t p r o b le m is u n d o u b te d ly o u r c a t e g o r i e s. T h e a v a ila b le c a te g o r ie s in lin g u is tic s a n d E F L a re a m ix o f tr a d itio n a l
L a tin - b a s e d g ra m m a r (e .g ., ‘in d ic a tiv e ’, ‘in tra n s itiv e ’) w ith v a rio u s m o d e m
a p p r o a c h e s , s o m e tim e d e s c r ip tiv e (e .g ., ‘c o n s ti tu e n t’, ‘v e rb p h r a s e ’)
s o m e tim e s g e n e r a tiv e (e .g ., ‘s e c o n d la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n ’, ‘u n iv e r s a l g r a m m a r ’). N o t s u rp ris in g ly , th e y d o n o t c o n s titu te a u n if ie d d e s c r ip tio n e ith e r in th e o r y o r in p r a c tic e ; a n d c o r p u s s tu d ie s k e e p tu r n in g u p g a p s .
I s h a ll e n d th is s e c tio n b y illu s tr a tin g o n e n o te w o r th y g a p . S o m a n y c o m b in a tio n s in a u th e n tic E n g l is h c a r ry a ttitu d e s o f g o o d a n d b a d ,
R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g ü í s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1 1 3 3 w e c a n ’t u s e ‘p o s itiv e 5 ( w h ic h c o u ld m e a n c e rta in ) a n d ‘n e g a tiv e ’ (w h ic h
is a c a t e g o r y o f th e V e rb P h r a s e ) . I h a v e c h o s e n ‘a m e l io r a tiv e ’ a n d ‘p e jo r a tiv e ’ w h ic h , th o u g h a ls o f r o m L a tin a n d a b it a c a d e m ic , c a n b e
r e s e r v e d f o r a ttitu d e s a lo n e .
O n e c la s s o f r e le v a n t d a ta a r e A d je c tiv e s th a t d o n o t s u p p ly th e
a ttitu d in a l q u a lity o f th e ir H e a d N o u n , b u t o n ly h ig h lig h t a q u a lity th e
N o u n w o u ld im p ly b y its e lf (cf. (T o g n in i B o n e lli, 1 99 3: S in c la ir 1 9 9 9 ). In
m y c o r p u s o f B r itis h a n d A m e r ic a n w r ite r s , ‘b e a u tif u l’ o fte n o c c u r s w ith th in g s I a t le a s t w o u ld n o t e x p e c t [3 0 - 3 4 ] , w h e re a s ‘u g l y 5 o f te n o c c u rs
w ith th in g s th a t c o u ld h a rd ly b e o th e r w is e [3 5 -3 9 ] a n d n e v e r w ith a n y th in g
I ’d e x p e c t to b e b e a u tifu l.
[3 0] O n e n i g h t th e re w a s a b e a u ti f u l e le c tr ic s to rm (W illa C a th e r )
[3 1] M y h e a r t q u ite fa ils m e w h e n I th in k h o w I m ig h t h a v e lo s t th a t
b e a u ti f u l lu n c h e o n - b a s k e t. ( K e n n e th G r a h a m e )
[32] ‘H o u n d n e v e r ra n o n a m o r e b e a u ti f u l s c e n t’, r e s p o n d e d th e s c o u t, d a s h in g f o r w a r d ( F e n im o r e C o o p e r )
[33] W e m u s t g o a n d v is it o u r b e a u ti f u l s u b u r b s o f L o n d o n ( T h a c k e r a y )
[34] I c o m e q u ite o v e r - p o w e r e d . S u c h a b e a u tif u l h in d - q u a r te r o f
p o r k ( A u s te n )
[35 ] h e o p e n e d h is j a w s , r o lle d b a c k h is l ip in an u g ly s n a r l (Z a n e G re y )
[36 ] w h a t a n u g ly m o n s te r i t w a s ! O n ly h is h o m e d h e a d b e lo n g e d to
a b u ll ( H a w th o r n e )
[37 ] w ith a b a n g a n u g ly b la c k im p a p p e a r e d a n d c r o a k e d a r e p ly
( A lc o tt)
[38] ‘H e w e r e a n u g ly d e v i l ’, c r ie d a th ir d p ira te , w ith a s h u d d e r ;
‘th a t b l u e in th e f a c e , t o o ! ’ ( S te v e n s o n )
[39] it w a s a s u g ly g a p in g w o u n d a s s u r g e o n e v e r s a w ; m o r e th a n tw o
f e e t (M e lv ille )
‘B e a u tif u l’ w a s fiv e tim e s as fr e q u e n t, a n d m a n y o c c u rre n c e s w e re
c o llo c a te d w ith th in g s th a t c o u ld b e o r n o t b e so , th e m o s t n u m e r o u s , p e r h a p s in e v ita b ly , b e in g ‘g ir l - la d y - w o m a n ’ — • in th e d is c o u r s e o f
f ic tio n , a f te r a ll.
In c o r p u s d a ta , th e s a m e w o rd m a y b e f o u n d to c a rry b o th a ttitu d e s.
In s o m e c o llo c a tio n s , th e A d je c tiv e ‘s e r io u s ’ h a s th e a m e lio ra tiv e m e a n in g
1 3 4 R e v . B r a s i l e i r a d e L i n g ü í s t i c a A p l i c a d a , v . l , n . l , 2 0 0 1 ‘g r a v e ’ o r ‘a la r m in g ’ [4 4 -4 6 ]. I f th e N o u n is v a g u e , lik e ‘th i n g ’, th e
p e jo r a tiv e d o m in a te s [4 7 -4 8 ].
[4 0 ] S h e d id it c o n s ta n tly , w ith s u c h a s e r io u s e n th u s ia s m th a t h e g r e w f o n d o f w a tc h in g h e r
[4 1 ] T h e d is c u s s io n c a r r ie d m e f a r a f ie ld in p e r h a p s th e m o s t s e r io u s
e c o n o m ic r e a d in g I h a v e e v e r d o n e (J a n e A d d a m s )
[4 2] I f M r. G o o d w o o d w e r e in te r e s te d in I s a b e l in th e se rio u s
m a n n e r d e s c r ib e d b y M is s S ta c k p o le h e w o u ld n o t c a r e to p r e s e n t
h i m s e l f a t G a r d e n c o u r t (H e n ry J a m e s )
[4 3] y o u h a v e a c tu a lly g iv e n h e r r e a s o n to f la tte r h e r s e lf th a t y o u
h a d th e m o s t s e r io u s d e s ig n s in h e r f a v o u r , (F ie ld in g )
[4 4] T h e E n g lis h G o v e r n m e n t to o k a n e x tr e m e ly s e r io u s v ie w o f th e m a t t e r (S tra c h e y )
[4 5 ] s o m e th in g h a s o c c u r r e d o f a m o s t u n e x p e c te d a n d s e rio u s
n a t u r e ; b u t I a m a f r a id o f a la r m in g y o u (A u s te n )
[4 6] I f o u n d th e u n d e r ta k in g e v e n a m o r e s e r io u s ta s k th a n m y fe a rs
h a d le d m e to im a g in e (P o e )
[4 7] th e f ir s t tim e lif e e v e r s tru c k J o n e s a s a re a lly s e r io u s th in g w a s
w h e n th e D e a n to ld h i m h e m u s t le a v e s c h o o l. (W .E .B . D u B o is ) [48 ] T o s o m e it s e e m e d th a t n o w th a t th e y w e r e in a c tu a l p o s s e s s io n
o f it, f r e e d o m w a s a m o r e s e rio u s th in g th a n th e y h a d e x p e c te d ( B o o k e r T . W a s h in g to n )
A s re m a r k e d in th e s o u rc e te x t f o r [4 8 ], ‘f r e e d o m ’ c a n s e e m
p e jo r a tiv e to s la v e s w h o a re to o o ld o r w e a k to f i n d n e w jo b s .
In th is se c tio n , I h a v e trie d to s h o w th a t a d v o c a tin g th e in tr o d u c tio n
o f c o r p o r a a s a u th e n tic E n g lis h in to E F L p r o g r a m m e s in n o w a y im p lie s
a b ris k o p tim is m th a t o v e rlo o k s s u b s ta n tiv e p r o b le m s in th e r e la tio n
b e tw e e n th e o r y a n d p r a c tic e . B y th e m s e lv e s , th e p r a c tic a l b e n e fits s h o u ld
b e e a s y to g ra s p . T E F L s h if ts f r o m a f r o n ta l, te a c h e r - c e n tr e d e x e r c is e in th e p r o d u c tio n o f c o rre c t th o u g h n o n -a u th e n tic s e n te n c e s o v e r to a le a rn e r-
c e n tr e d j o i n t e x p lo r a tio n a n d a p p r e c ia tio n o f a u th e n tic te x ts . T e a c h e rs a re f r e e d f r o m te d iu m o f in v e n tin g a n d w r itin g o u t d a ta , a n d f r o m a n y
r e s id u a l a n x ie tie s a b o u t th e ir o w n c o m m a n d o f s ta n d a r d E n g lis h . A n d e v en e v e ry d a y c la s s w o rk c a n le a d to th e d is c o v e ry o f s u b tle a n d p re v io u s ly
u n n o tic e d ‘s ta n d a r d s ’ a s a ta n g ib le a n d c r e a tiv e a c h ie v e m e n t.
B u t in th e w id e r c o n te x t, th e se b e n e f its n e e d to b e s e c u re d th ro u g h
