European Diversit y and Aut onomy Papers
EDAP 4/ 2004
The ‘ Cult ural Indust ries’ :
A Clash of Basic Values?
A Comparat ive St udy of t he EU
and t he NAFTA in Light of t he WTO
Managing edit ors:
Emma Lant schner / Francesco Pal ermo / Gabriel N. Toggenburg
Edit orial Board:
In al phabet i cal or der :
Crauf urd Smit h Rachel (Universit y of Edinburgh, UK) Dani Marco (Universit à di Trent o, I)
De Wit t e Bruno (European Universit y Inst it ut e, I) Gamper Anna (Universit ät Innsbruck, A) Henrard Krist in (Universit y of Groningen, NL)
Kuj ovich Gil (Vermont Law School , US) Kyml icka, Wil l (Queens Universit y, CAN)
Marko Joseph (Universit ät Graz, A) Nic Shuibhne Niamh (Universit y of Edinburgh, UK)
Ort ino Sergio (Universit à di Firenze, I) Packer John (Tuf t s Universit y, US) Poggeschi Giovanni (Universit à di Lecce, I) Sasse Gwendol yn (London School of Economics, UK)
Tarr Wil l iam (Rut gers Universit y, US) Teachout Pet er (Vermont Law School , US)
Toniat t i Robert o (Universit à di Trent o, I) Woel k Jens (Universit à di Trent o, I)
Europäische Akademie Bozen Drususal l ee, 1
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Copyright Informat ion:
Abstract
Original l y coined in t he 1940s by prot agonist s of t he Frankf urt School , t he concept of ‘ cul t ure indust ry’ was gradual l y t ransf ormed f rom a derogat ory t erm int o t he pot ent ial l y more const ruct ive concept ‘ cul t ural indust ries’ in t he cont ext of t he gl obal cul t ure and t rade debat e.
The present art icl e uses t hree paint ings by t he Bel gian paint er René Magrit t e t o visual l y out l ine t he f ramework of t he concept ual and percept ive chal l enges, which were int roduced by t he various t echnol ogical innovat ions underl ying t he various sect ors embraced by t he cul t ural indust ries and highl ight s some of t he consequences t hese ent ail f or t he regul at ion of int ernat ional t rade. In part icul ar, t wo l egal precedent s concerning t he periodical s indust ry –invol ving, on t he one hand, t he EU and, on t he ot her hand, t he NAFTA and t he WTO – are used t o highl ight t he pot ent ial f or a cl ash bet ween cul t ural and commercial considerat ions as t hey are concept ual l y combined in t he cul t ural indust ries. For t he sake of great er cl arit y it is shown t hat in t he overal l regul at ory process such a cl ash can occur eit her at t he l evel of t he l egal idea, or t he l egal norm, or t he l egal decision.
The art icl e concl udes by emphasising t he need f or a bal ance bet ween cul t ural and commercial considerat ions wit h a view of t heir mut ual reconcil iat ion in t he regul at ion of int ernat ional t rade, bot h at t he gl obal as wel l as t he regional l evel .
Aut hor
Since t he year 2000, Rost am J. Neuwirt h is a PhD researcher at t he European Universit y Inst it ut e, Fl orence (It al y) f ocusing on t he rol e of t he cul t ural indust ries in t he so-cal l ed ‘ cul t ure and t rade debat e’ incl uding various at t empt s t o adopt an int ernat ional st andard-set t ing inst rument on cul t rural diversit y. In addit ion, he is t he hol der of a Mast er’ s degree in Law (LLM) f rom t he Inst it ut e of Comparat ive Law at McGil l Universit y, Mont real (Canada), and a degree in l aw (Magi st er i ur i s) f rom t he Karl –Franzens-Universit ät Graz (Aust ria).
The aut hor can be reached at : Rost ham. Neuwirt h@iue. it.
Key words
Table of cont ent s
1. Introduction. . . 5
2. The Constitutionalisation of Culture and Trade: “ Attempting the Impossible” ? . . . 7
2. 1. The St range Case of Cul t ure and Trade: Dichot omy, Quandary, or Synergy?. . . 7
2. 1. 1. Dichot omy: The Roman Exampl e . . . 8
2. 1. 2. Quandary: The Present St at e of Af f airs . . . 8
2. 1. 3. Synergy: The Const it ut ional isat ion Debat e . . . 9
2. 2. The Legal Idea . . . 10
3. The Cultural Industries: “ The Key to the Fields” ? . . . 11
3. 1. NAFTA, t he EU and t he WTO: Three Normat ive Approaches. . . 11
3. 1. 1. NAFTA . . . 11
3. 1. 2. The European Union . . . 12
3. 1. 3. The Worl d Trade Organizat ion . . . 13
3. 2. The Legal Norm . . . 14
4. The Case Law Experience: “ Not to be Reproduced” ? . . . 14
4. 1. A Comparat ive Approach: “ The Same or Not t he Same: That is t he Quest ion?” . . . 14
4. 1. 1. The European Union: Commission of t he EC v French Republ ic16 4. 1. 2. NAFTA and t he WTO . . . 17
4. 2. The Legal Decision . . . 18
The ‘ Cultural Industries’ : A Clash of Basic Values?
A Comparat ive St udy of t he EU and t he NAFTA in
Light of t he WTO
1Rost am J. Neuwirt h
1. Int roduct ion
The concept of cul t ural indust ries and t he posit ion t hey hol d in t he present int ernat ional pol it ical and economic worl d order can be cont empl at ed t hrough t hree paint ings by t he Bel gian paint er René (Fr ançoi s Ghi sl ai n) Magr i t t e
(1898-1967). It is no mere coincidence t hat Magrit t e was abl e t o grasp so wel l t he principal f eat ures of t he cul t ural indust ries, since it was during his l if et ime and, part icul arl y, during t he period in which he creat ed t hese paint ings t hat t he concept it sel f was coined in t he l ight of pol it ical t urmoil and new t echnol ogical innovat ions.2 Moreover, a surreal ist work of art may in f act in t he moment of it s creat ion be ‘ over-real ist ic’ and t heref ore event ual l y requires t he t ime f act or t o cl ose t he gap bet ween t he mind’ s idea, t he creat ive process and it s f inal mat erial manif est at ion in real it y. The t it l es of t he rel evant paint ings are “ At t empt ing t he Impossibl e” (1928), “ t he Key t o t he Fiel ds” (1936) and “ Not t o Be Reproduced” (1937).
In t his chronol ogical order, t heir t it l es and visual cont ent may be used t o il l ust rat e some of t he principal st ages in t he evol ut ion of t he concept of t he cul t ural indust ries. The f irst st age began as an idea and was subsequent l y f ormul at ed as t he concept of ‘ cul t ure indust ry’ (Kul t ur i ndust r i e).3
Then, once t he concept was coined, it was subj ect t o discussions in various scient if ic f iel ds, ranging f rom sociol ogy t o pol it ical economy and economics.4
In t he provisional l y f inal st age, it became enshrined f or t he f irst t ime in a t ext of
1
An earl ier version of t his paper has been publ ished in Francesco Pal ermo and Gabriel N. Toggenburg (eds. ), Eur opean Const i t ut i onal Val ues and Cul t ur al Di ver si t y (EURAC Research, Bol zano/ Bozen,
2003, out of print ).
2
Compare: “ Das Kunst werk im Zeit al t er seiner t echnischen Reproduzierbarkeit ” (The Work of Art in t he Age of Mechanical Reproduct ion, (1936)), in Rol f Tiedemann and Hermann Schweppenhäuser (eds. ), 1 Wal t er Benj ami n - Gesammel t e Schr i f t en, (Suhrkamp, Frankf urt a. M. , 2nd ed. 1978), 436; and see t he chapt er on t he cul t ural indust ries in Theodor W. Adorno and Max Horkheimer, Di al ect i c of Enl i ght enment (Verso, New York, 1997), 120.
3
See Theodor W. Adorno, The Cul t ur e Indust r y (Rout ledge, London, 1991), 98.
4
See e. g. t he diverse cont ribut ions in UNESCO, Cul t ur al Indust r i es: A chal l enge f or t he f ut ur e of cul t ur e (Paris, UNESCO, 1982); Nicholas Garnham, Capi t al i sm and Communi cat i on: Gl obal Cul t ur e and t he Economi cs of Inf or mat i on (SAGE, London, 1990); and f or t he f iel d of economics David
Throsby, Economi cs and Cul t ur e (Cambridge Universit y Press, Cambridge, 2001); Françoise
int ernat ional (t rade) l aw, t he 1988 Canada-US Free Trade Agreement (CUSFTA).5 Since t hen t he concept has cont inued t o raise import ant l egal quest ions in t he cont ext of several economic int egrat ion proj ect s.
Again t aken in t his chronol ogical order t he paint ings are al so a means t o ponder on t he dynamics underl ying t he process of t he f ormat ion of l aw. For t he real isat ion of l aw (Recht sver wi r kl i chung), t he way in which a l aw becomes
f ormul at ed and t hen event ual l y appl ied t o a great variet y of f act s, f ol l ows a simil ar procedure. The nat ure of t his process is of t en exempl if ied by t hree maj or l ogical st eps. Not impossibl e per se but perhaps impossible t o put int o
words, t he f irst st ep t akes pl ace in t he mind and consist s of t he f ormul at ion of a l egal idea (Recht si dee). Then, as a second st ep, t he idea becomes
t ransf ormed int o a l egal norm (Recht snor m) which, f inal l y, is appl ied t o real
f act s usual l y t aking various f orms of a l egal decision (Recht sent schei dung).6 This l ogical l ine of l egal reasoning is cal l ed t he l egal syl l ogism.7
This kind of reasoning, however, is dif f icul t t o appl y t o t he cul t ural indust ries. This dif f icul t y is due t o t he concept ’ s charact er of an oxymoron, i. e. a f igure of speech (or a word) in which apparent l y cont radict ory t erms appear in conj unct ion. Original l y, John Sincl air writ es, t he concept was designed t o “ set up a crit ical cont rast bet ween t he expl oit at ive, repet it ive mode of indust rial mass product ion under capit al ism and t he associat ions of t ransf ormat ive power and aest het ico-moral t ranscendence t hat t he concept of cul t ure carried in t he 1940s, when it st il l meant ‘ high’ cul t ure” .8
Today, t his cont rast t akes more t he f orm of a conf l ict bet ween cul t ural and commercial (or economic) val ues and int erest s. In t he case of t he cul t ural indust ries t hese val ues and int erest s cl ash because of t heir dual nat ure.9 Theref ore, t he present , and even more so t he f ut ure, t reat ment of t he cul t ural indust ries in t he cont ext of various pol it ical and economic int egrat ion
5
Canada-Unit ed St at es Free Trade Agreement , done at Ot t awa, 22 December 1987 and 2 January 1988, and done at Washingt on, D. C. and Pal m Springs, 23 December 1987 and 2 January 1988, 27
Int er nat i onal Legal Mat er i al s, 281.
6
See Art hur Kauf mann, Anal ogi e und “ Nat ur der Sache” (Decker und Mül l er, Heidel berg, 2nd ed. ,
1982), at 13.
7
A syl l ogism consist s of t wo, one maj or and one minor, premises, whose successf ul subsumpt ion is f ol l owed by a concl usion; see Brian Wint ers, “ Logic and Legit imacy: The Uses of Const it ut ional Argument ” , 48 Case West er n Reser ve Law Revi ew (1998), 263.
8
John Sincl air, “ Cul t ure and Trade: Some Theoret ical and Pract ical Considerat ions” in Emil e G. McAnany and Kent on T. Wil kinson (eds. ), Mass Medi a and Fr ee Tr ade: NAFTA and t he Cul t ur al Indust r i es (Universit y of Texas Press, Aust in, 1996), at 30.
9
See e. g. Trevor Knight , “ The Dual Nat ure of Cul t ural Product s: An Anal ysis of t he Worl d Trade Organizat ion's Decisions Regarding Canadian Periodical s” , (57)2 U. T. Fac. L. Rev. (1999), at 165,
proj ect s is unsat isf act ory, and cont inues t o pose a serious concept ual chal l enge.
Keeping in mind t hese t hree l ogical st eps, t he present anal ysis t ries t o cast some l ight on t he cul t ural indust ries in t he cont ext of bot h Nort h American and European int egrat ion proj ect s as wel l as t he paral l el process of gl obal int egrat ion under t he aegis of t he Worl d Trade Organizat ion (WTO). Part one depart s f rom t he l evel of ideas describing t he general background of t he cul t ural indust ries, which is root ed in t he myst erious rel at ion bet ween cul t ure and t rade as part of t he wider ‘ t rade l inkage debat e’ . Here, t he goal is t o cl arif y t heir mut ual rel at ion on t he basis of t hree exampl es. Part t wo f ol l ows t he underst anding of t he dual nat ure i nherent in t he cul t ural indust ries as being t he key t o t he f iel ds f orming t he broader cul t ure and t rade debat e and out l ines t he principal normat ive approaches f ound in t he European Union (EU), t he Nort h American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and t he WTO. Based on t hese norms, part t hree compares t he case l aw as it was produced f irst in t he European and l at er in t he Nort h American cont ext . The comparison is made t o hel p t o eval uat e t he general impact of t he dif f erent norms discussed. Final l y, t he concl uding remarks of f er some suggest ions wit h regard t o t he f ut ure t reat ment of t he cul t ural indust ries in t he gl obal cont ext , t he f oundat ions of which are current l y being l aid in t he course of negot iat ions f or a new t rade l iberal isat ion round, l aunched at t he 4t h WTO Minist erial Conf erence hel d bet ween t he 9-14 November 2001 in Doha, Qat ar (The Doha
Round).
2. The Const it ut ionalisat ion of Cult ure and Trade:
“ At t empt ing t he Impossible” ?
2. 1. The St r ange Case of Cul t ur e and Tr ade:
Di chot omy, Quandar y, or Syner gy?
The oxymoronic cl ash bet ween ‘ cul t ure’ and ‘ indust ry’ f inds it s equival ent in t he j uxt aposit ion of t he t wo broader, but at l east equal l y el ast ic, concept s of cul t ure and t rade. From earl y human hist ory unt il t oday, t he concept ual isat ion of cul t ure and t rade has posed considerabl e dif f icul t ies. These dif f icul t ies persist on t he present int ernat ional t rade agenda, bot h gl obal l y and regional l y, where t he concept of cul t ure has been, and cont inues t o be perceived as being principal l y incompat ibl e wit h t he val ues of f ree t rade. Among ot her concept s t hat are deemed incompat ibl e wit h f ree t rade, such as t he environment , devel opment , human right s or social and l abour st andards, cul t ure is arguabl y t he most dynamic as wel l as comprehensive, and hence t he most dif f icul t , concept t o out l ine in t he ‘ t rade l inkage debat e’ .
and not abl y t hose of NAFTA, t he EU and t he WTO, must begin wit h an at t empt t o cl arif y t heir mut ual st anding. As t he t it l e suggest s, whil e t his t ask is perhaps not ‘ impossibl e’ , it is def init el y not easy, as t he f ol l owing exampl es show. The dif f icul t y is t o a l arge ext ent due t o t he ext reme f l uidit y of ideas and t heir const ant change in hist ory. Wit h t he ideas t he mut ual int eract ion bet ween cul t ure and t rade can change f rom one of dichot omy, across quandary, t o event ual l y one of synergy.
2. 1. 1. Di chot omy: The Roman Exampl e
The f irst exampl e of ideas about t he rel at ion bet ween t he concept s of cul t ure and t rade is one of t heir mut ual excl usiveness. It is f ound in a part of t he l egal writ ings of t he Roman j urist Gai us (130-180 AD). In t he second book of his Inst i t ut i ones, he dist inguishes t hings which are eit her subj ect t o privat e
dominion or not subj ect t o privat e dominion.10
The dist inct ions made by Gai us
f orm t he basic ref erence t o what in l at er writ ings became known as t he cat egory of “ t hings which cannot be t he obj ect of exchange or of any l egal commercial t ransact ion” (r es ext r a commer ci um or r es quar um commer ci um non est ). This cl assif icat ion ref erred especial l y t o t he right t o buy and sel l
reciprocal l y. Things f al l ing under t his cat egory were t hus excl uded f rom commercial t ransact ions. Part icul arl y t he t hings subj ect t o divine dominion (r es di vi ni i ur i s) can be compared t o t he concept of cul t ural propert y.11 In a wider sense t his cl assif icat ion al so represent s an approach t o cul t ure in t he real m of int ernat ional t rade l aw, part icul arl y t he spirit underl ying t he approach chosen by t he draf t ers of t he 1948 General Agreement on Tarif f s and Trade (GATT).12
2. 1. 2. Quandar y: The Pr esent St at e of Af f ai r s
The t erm ‘ quandary’ probabl y highl ight s best t he percept ion of t he present st at e of pl ay in t he int eract ion bet ween cul t ure and t rade on t he regional as wel l as gl obal l evel . The present chal l enge is exempl if ied in t he UNESCO publ icat ion on Cul t ure, Trade and Gl obal izat ion, publ ished in t he year 2000. The bookl et acknowl edges t he enormous signif icance of bot h cul t ure and t rade, but when it comes t o t heir combined considerat ion, such as in t he case of t he cul t ural indust ries (cul t ural goods and services), it draws a rat her ambiguous image:
10
See Edward Post e, Gai i Inst i t ut i onum Iur i s Ci vi l i s Comment ar i i Quat uor or El ement s of Roman Law by Gai us (Cl arendon Press, Oxf ord, 1871), at 130 et seq.
11
Res di vi ni i ur i s incl uded sacred t hings (r es sacr ae), rel igious t hings (r es r el i gi osae), and sanct if ied
t hings (r es sanct ae); see Max Kaser, Römi sches Pr i vat r echt (Carl H. Beck, München, 15t h ed. 1989),
90-1.
12
The i ssue of ‘ cul t ur e and t r ade’ has now acqui r ed pr i me st r at egi c si gni f i cance. Cul t ur al goods and ser vi ces convey and const r uct cul t ur al val ues, pr oduce and r epr oduce cul t ur al i dent i t y and cont r i but e t o soci al cohesi on; at t he same t i me t hey const i t ut e a key f r ee f act or of pr oduct i on i n t he new knowl edge economy. Thi s makes negot i at i ons i n t he cul t ur al f i el d ext r emel y cont r over si al and di f f i cul t . As sever al exper t s poi nt out , no ot her i ndust r y has gener at ed so much debat e on t he pol i t i cal , economi c and i nst i t ut i onal l i mi t s of t he r egi onal and gl obal i nt egr at i on pr ocesses or t hei r l egi t i macy. When cul t ur e i s put on t he t abl e, i t of t en pr ompt s compl ex di scussi ons on t he r el at i onshi p bet ween t he economi c and non-economi c val ue of t hi ngs, t hat i s, t he val ue at t r i but ed t o t hose t hi ngs t hat do not have an assi gned pr i ce (such as i dent i t y, beaut y, or t he meani ng of l i f e).13
The causes f or t he present quandary concerning t he cul t ural indust ries are t o a l arge ext ent f ound in t he f oundat ions of t he present int ernat ional t rading regime it sel f . These f oundat ions were l aid wit h t he adopt ion of t he GATT. It is not ewort hy t hat t he GATT resumed t he work of t he League of Nat ions (1920-1946) buil ding on various ef f ort s as wel l as f ail ures coming f rom experiences gained during t he l at t er’ s exist ence. These rul es have been, however, subj ect t o considerabl e changes in t he course of eight subsequent negot iat ion rounds, which in 1995 cul minat ed in t he creat ion of t he WTO. Nevert hel ess, al t hough t he scope of t he WTO expanded int o many new areas, t he rul es governing t he issue of cul t ure remained by and l arge t he same.
2. 1. 3. Syner gy: The Const i t ut i onal i sat i on Debat e
Largel y due t o t he absence of a rel evant l egal source in t he search f or a t hird exampl e t hat sket ches t he cont ours of a pot ent ial l y harmonious and mut ual l y enriching rel at ionship bet ween cul t ure and t rade, it is necessary t o ref er t o t he product of anot her art ist ’ s mind. Such a possibl e account f or a synergic rel at ion bet ween cul t ure and t rade is given by St ef an Zwei g (1881-1940) in his
poet ic record of hist ory t it l ed “ St ernst unden der Menschheit” (“ Decisive
Moment s in Hist ory” ) f irst publ ished in 1927. A cont emporary of Magr i t t e, his
account of human hist ory has l ost not hing of it s rel evance. In f act , t he f oreword t o t he f ourt een ‘ decisive moment s’ cont rast s, as an al l usion t o t he dichot omy bet ween cul t ure and t rade, an art ist ’ s art ist ic or cul t ural endeavour wit h one dedicat ed t o more insignif icant and mundane t hings. From t his init ial dichot omy, he proceeds t o a more dynamic view, which reveal s an event ual causal l ink, a possibl e synergy, hidden under a deeper l ayer, bet ween t he rare decisive moment s and t he const ant ef f ort s of mil l ions of peopl e. He wrot e:
13
No ar t i st i s unceasi ngl y an ar t i st dur i ng t he ent i r e t went y-f our hour s of hi s dai l y l i f e; ever y subst ant i al , l ast i ng success t hat he achi eves al ways comes i nt o bei ng onl y i n t hose f ew r ar e moment s of i nspi r at i on. Si mi l ar l y, hi st or y, i n whi ch we admi r e t he gr eat est poet and act or of al l t i me, i s by no means ceasel essl y cr eat i ve. Even t hi s “ myst er i ous wor kshop of God, ” as Goet he r ever ent l y cal l ed hi st or y, a vast number of i nsi gni f i cant and mundane t hi ngs occur . Even her e, as ever ywher e i n ar t and l i f e, t he subl i me, unf or get t abl e moment s ar e r ar e. Usual l y, as an annal i st hi st or y i ndi f f er ent l y and per si st ent l y does not hi ng but add l i nk t o l i nk i n t hat enor mous chai n t hat st r et ches t hr ough t he mi l l enni a, addi ng f act t o f act , f or al l exci t ement s needs t i me f or pr epar at i on, and ever y r eal event must under go devel opment . Mi l l i ons of peopl e wi t hi n a nat i on ar e al ways necessar y f or one geni us t o come i nt o bei ng; mi l l i ons of i dl e human hour s must al ways pass bef or e a t r ul y hi st or i cal , deci si ve moment i n hi st or y makes i t s appear ance.14
Int erpret ed f or t he cont ext of t he present anal ysis, his observat ion hint s at a possibl e, but perhaps undet ect ed, l inkage bet ween cul t ure and t rade. Probabl y t he l inkage has st il l not been dul y excavat ed f rom it s hidden pl ace because it is eit her so obvious as t o be invisibl e, or el se t oo deepl y embedded in t he cent re of l if e so t hat a human being must st ep back and engage in t he dif f icul t endeavour of a crit ical sel f -ref l ect ion in order t o bring it t o t he surf ace. Nonet hel ess, Zwei g’ s observat ions are echoed in t hose of t rade
l awyers who, due t o t he devel opment of t rade l aw and pract ices t hrough cust oms and usages, advocat e t he universal hist ory of cul t ures (uni ver sel l e Kul t ur geschi cht e) as t he richest source enhancing t he underst anding of
t rade.15
2. 2. The Legal Idea
Each of t he t hree exampl es is sit uat ed in a dif f erent hist orical cont ext . St ef an Zwei g’ s st at ement is except ional because it s aim – as compared t o t he t wo
ot her exampl es – is not t o regul at e or describe t he necessit ies of t he respect ive epoch but inst ead t o give a l it erary expl anat ion of t he nat ural f orces working behind t he evol ut ion of mankind. Thus it is t he idea about a possibl e l ink bet ween cul t ure and t rade t hat pl ays a signif icant rol e in t he l if e of an individual and a nat ion al ike, an idea which deserves f urt her t hought in t he l ight of present probl ems and devel opment s in t he int ernat ional arena. The idea t hat it is possibl e t o derive synergy ef f ect s f rom a l ink bet ween cul t ure and t rade must be t aken seriousl y and must be made part of present
14
St ef an Zweig, Deci si ve Moment s i n Hi st or y: Twel ve Hi st or i cal Mi ni at ur es (Ariadne Press, Riverside,
1999), 5.
15
See e. g. Levin Gol dschmidt , Handbuch des Handel sr echt s (Verl ag Ferdinand von Enke, St ut t gart , 2nd
ed. 1875), at 6 and 10; see al so Karst en Schmidt , Handel sr echt (Carl Heymanns Verl ag, Köl n, 4t h
day l egal considerat ions. An import ant impet us comes f rom t he ongoing const it ut ional isat ion debat e in t rade l aw as wel l as in l aw general l y t hat begins t o occupy t he WTO and t he EU and, perhaps onl y indirect l y – by way of t he WTO –, al so NAFTA.16
3. The Cult ural Indust ries: “ The Key t o t he Fields” ?
3. 1. NAFTA, t he EU and t he WTO: Thr ee Nor mat i ve Appr oaches
From t he idea of a harmonious rel at ion bet ween issues pert aining t o t he f iel ds of cul t ure and t rade comes t he quest ion of how best t o deal wit h t rade and non-t rade subj ect s. In l ight of t he f oregoing exampl es and al so t he present t endency f or t he organisat ion of societ ies, incl uding cul t ural and economic aspect s, t o increase in compl exit y, t he need f or a regul at ory approach t hat al l ows f or synergy ef f ect s bet ween t he t radit ional l y separat e f iel ds of cul t ure and t rade increases. For t he real m of t he WTO, Debr a P. St eger has recent l y
expressed a simil ar idea by st at ing t hat t he quest ion is not whet her t he WTO shoul d or shoul d not deal wit h t he “ t rade and . . . ” subj ect s but inst ead “ how shoul d t hese so-cal l ed non-t rade subj ect s be deal t wit h wit hin t he WTO syst em?” .17 This chal l enge, however, depends l argel y on t he condit ions governing t he organisat ion of t he int ernat ional l egal order as a whol e, part icul arl y concerning t he rol e pl ayed by various publ ic and privat e int ernat ional act ors and t heir horizont al as wel l as vert ical int eract ion.
In t he endeavour t o f ree synergies bet ween cul t ure and t rade, t he key concept l eading t o t he f iel d of t he t r ade and cul t ure conundrum is provided by t he not ion of t he cul t ural indust ries. Due t o t heir dual nat ure as an oxymoron, t he cul t ural indust ries pose an int erest ing int el l ect ual as much as pract ical chal l enge t o t he exist ing normat ive f rameworks and t heir organisat ional st ruct ures. A chal l enge which is met dif f erent l y in t he cont ext of t he NAFTA, t he EU and t he WTO.
3. 1. 1. NAFTA
By virt ue of Art icl e 2106 and Annex 2106, NAFTA incorporat es t he provisions rel evant f or t he cul t ural indust ries f rom it s predecessor, t he CUSFTA, which cont ained t he f irst aut hent ic l egal def init i on of t he cul t ural indust ries. Art icl e 2107 NAFTA def ines t he cul t ural indust ries as persons engaged in any act ivit ies invol ving t he publ icat ion, dist ribut ion or sal e of books, magazines, periodical s or newspapers, f il m or video recordings, audio or video music recordings and broadcast ing.
16
See e. g. Joseph H. H. Weil er (ed. ), The EU, t he WTO, and t he NAFTA: Towar ds a Common Law of Int er nat i onal Tr ade (Oxf ord Universit y Press, Oxf ord, 2000); Gráinne De Búrca and Joanne Scot t
(eds. ), The EU and t he WTO: Legal and Const i t ut i onal Issues (Hart , Oxf ord, 2001).
17
The provisions in NAFTA have t he ef f ect t hat t hey exempt t he cul t ural indust ries f rom t he t erms of t he agreement covering mainl y t he f ree f l ow of goods and services. The general exempt ion, however, is subj ect t o f our except ions.18 There exist s a maj or probl em in det ermining t he act ual val ue of t he exempt ion of t he cul t ural indust ries which goes back t o divergent int erpret at ions of it s wording by t he t wo part ies. The discord appl ies mainl y t o t he right f or each count ry t o respond t o t he int roduct ion of new measures af f ect ing t rade t o t he cul t ural indust ries as l aid down in Art icl e 2005 Paragraph 2 CUSFTA (“ Not wit hst anding any ot her provision of t his Agreement , a Part y may t ake measures of equival ent commercial ef f ect in response t o act ions t hat woul d have been inconsist ent wit h t his agreement but f or Paragraph 1” ). According t o t he Canadian reading of t he rel evant art icl es, t he US right t o ret al iat e is l imit ed t o measures inconsist ent wit h t he CUSFTA and not NAFTA and t heref ore rest rict ed t o t he sect or of t he cul t ural indust ries.19 The Unit ed St at es, on t he ot her hand, sees it s right t o ret al iat e as unl imit ed. In f act , t here remains considerabl e room f or uncert aint y in t he procedure, f unct ioning and scope of t he exempt ion, which seems unl ikel y t o change in t he near f ut ure.20
3. 1. 2. The Eur opean Uni on
In t he case of t he EU, t he t ime period bet ween t he creat ion of t he European Economic Communit y and t he ent ry int o f orce of t he Treat y on t he European Union (TEU) was charact erised by t he absence of an express l egal basis f or cul t ural considerat ions and act ions. The sol e indicat ion f or a possibl e derogat ion f rom t he principl es enshrined in t he Treat y is f ound in Art icl e 36 (now 30) TEC which concerns measur es t o prot ect “ nat ional t reasures possessing art ist ic, hist oric or archaeol ogical val ue” . Wit hin t he scope of t his provision f al l mainl y obj ect s pert aining t o cul t ural propert y. It shoul d be not ed t hat t he wording used in Art icl e 36 is ident ical wit h t he provision in Art icl e XX l it . f . GATT, which is al so incorporat ed by way of ref erence int o NAFTA (Art icl e 2101). The change, however, came wit h t he ent ry int o f orce of t he TEU on November 1, 1993, which by virt ue of Art icl e 128 of t he Treat y on t he European Communit y (now Art icl e 151 TEC) int roduced a provision on cul t ure int o Communit y l aw. Paragraph 1 l ays down t he Communit y’ s
18
Compare Art icl es 401, 1607 para. 4, 2006, and 2007 CUSFTA; see al so Jon R. Johnson and Joel S. Schacht er, The Fr ee Tr ade Agr eement : A Compr ehensi ve Gui de (Canada Law Book, Aurora, 1988),
at 141 and Jon R. Johnson, The Nor t h Amer i can Fr ee Tr ade Agr eement : A Compr ehensi ve Gui de
(Canada Law Book, Aurora, 1994), at 470-472.
19
See Keit h Acheson and Christ opher Maul e, Int er nat i onal Agr eement s and t he Cul t ur al Indust r i es
(Cent re f or Trade Pol icy and Law, Ot t awa, 1996) at 7-9 and Johnson and Schacht er, The Fr ee Tr ade Agr eement …, 145-147.
20
See e. g. t he quot e f rom Barry Appl et on, Navi gat i ng NAFTA: A conci se user ’ s gui de t o t he Nor t h Amer i can Fr ee Tr ade Agr eement (Carswel l , Scarborough, 1994), at 191, reproduced in Acheson and
obl igat ion t o “ cont ribut e t o t he f l owering of t he cul t ures of t he member st at es whil e respect ing t heir nat ional and regional diversit y” . Paragraph 2 emphasises t he subsidiary rol e of t he Communit y in t he f iel d of cul t ure, and in recit al 4 it ref ers specif ical l y t o t he f iel d of art ist ic and l it erary creat ion, incl uding t he audiovisual sect or. Paragr aph 3 cal l s f or bot h t he Communit y’ s and member st at es’ enhanced int ernat ional cooperat ion wit h t hird count ries as wel l as int ernat ional organisat ions. A key rol e is pl ayed by paragraph 4, which cont ains a cross-sect ion cl ause t hat requires t he Communit y t o t ake cul t ural aspect s int o account in it s act ion under ot her provisions of t his Treat y. Paragraph 5 cont ains provisions of a procedural charact er (unanimit y vot ing).
3. 1. 3. The Wor l d Tr ade Or gani zat i on
In t he f ramework of t he WTO, provisions cont aining a ref erence t o cul t ure are virt ual l y non-exist ent . The most rel evant provision is Art icl e IV GATT, which under cert ain condit ions exempt s cinemat ographic f il ms f rom t he rul es on t he f ree t rade in goods, and not abl y t hose on quant it at ive rest rict ions, by al l owing part ies t o t he agreement t o adopt screen quot as f or cinemat ographic f il ms. Despit e t he provision’ s l imit ed scope t here are reasons t o argue f or it s evol ut ionary int erpret at ion. These reasons are f ound in t he t echnol ogical st at e of pl ay at t he t ime of it s draf t ing, which happened l ong bef ore t he advent of t ransnat ional broadcast ing via sat el l it e when cinema was t he most import ant mass medium. Furt hermore, in t he l ight of t he l at er evol ut ion f ol l owing t he adopt ion of t he GATT unt il t he creat ion of t he WTO syst em as a ‘ singl e package’ , t he provision can be seen as having evol ved t oget her wit h t he cont ext . This woul d mean t hat eit her t he provision is int erpret ed as comprising t he new media, part icul arl y given t he ongoing t endency of convergence, or it cal l s f or it s amendment or even t he negot iat ion of a separat e agreement deal ing wit h cul t ural mat t ers under t he WTO syst em.
Anot her provision wit h a possibl e l ink t o cul t ure is f ound in Art icl e XX l it . a. and f . GATT. This art icl e enumerat es except ions t o t he est abl ished principl es of t he underl ying t rade regime f or measures “ necessary t o prot ect publ ic moral s” (l it . a. ) and f or measures “ imposed f or t he prot ect ion of nat ional t reasures of art ist ic, hist oric or archaeol ogical val ue” (l it . f . ). The exact wording of t he t wo except ions does not suggest a direct appl icabil it y t o t he cul t ural indust ries and a possibl e l ink coul d onl y be est abl ished t hrough t he use of ext ensive int erpret at ion met hods.
cul t ural indust ries.21
Addit ionally, f or f urt her liberalisat ion, part icularly f or t he applicat ion of t he nat ional t reat ment principle, it requires t he part ies’ posit ive commit ment in specif ic sect ors.22
It is int erest ing t o not e t hat wit h regard t o t he cul t ural indust ries neit her Canada nor t he European Union have inscribed t he audiovisual sect or in t he schedul es of commit ment f or nat ional t reat ment .23
3. 2. The Legal Nor m
This brief gl ance at t he most rel evant norms reveal s great disparit ies in t heir approach t o t he sect ors of t he cul t ural indust ries: First , t he Canadian Government has chosen t o prot ect cert ain cul t ural goods and services by way of an exempt ion in it s t rading rel at ions wit h t he part ners in t he f ree t rade area creat ed by NAFTA. The EU – af t er l ong years of negat ive int egrat ion carried out mainl y by t he ECJ – has gone f urt her and decided t o deal wit h cul t ure by way of posit ive int egrat ion bet ween it s member st at es, al beit wit h l imit ed room f or act ion. The WTO is t he most f ragment ed in charact er wit h no part icul ar ref erence t o eit her t he cul t ur al indust ries or cul t ure. In f act , in more t han hal f a cent ury, t he onl y direct l y rel at ed provision has remained in a kind of embryonic st at e as compared t o t he neighbouring provisions of GATT 1947 which have devel oped int o separat e agreement s.
4. The Case Law Experience: “ Not t o be Reproduced” ?
4. 1. A Compar at i ve Appr oach: “ The Same or Not t he Same: That i s
t he Quest i on?”
Wal king in Fl orence (It al y), one may ask onesel f whet her t he repl ica David st at ue pl aced on Pi azza Si gnor i a or t he one on Pi azza Mi chel angel o are real l y
l ike t he original housed in t he Gal l er i a del l ’ Accademi a? Leonar do Da Vi nci ’ s
response woul d probabl y have been “ no” , given his def init ion of an art ist ic work as “ a work of a creat ive act which can neit her be repeat ed, nor copied” .24 A simil ar answer was given by Wal t er Benj ami n in his art icl e
“ L’ Œuvre d’ art à l ’ époque de sa reproduct ion mécanisée” (“ The work of Art in t he Age of Mechanical Reproduct ion” ) publ ished in 1936, despit e his dist inct ion bet ween t he process of imit at ion and t hat of mechanical reproduct ion.25 Whil e t he imit at ion of manmade art ef act s f or educat ional as wel l as commercial purposes was f requent in hist ory, Benj ami n bel ieves t hat
t he mechanical reproduct ion of a piece of art resul t s in t he l oss of it s aut hent icit y due t o t he shat t ering of t he t ime-space rel at ionship, t he
21
Art icl e II para. 2 GATS.
22
Part III GATS.
23
See Acheson and Maul e, Int er nat i onal Agr eement s . . . , 4.
24
Quot ed in St anisl aw E. Nahl ik, “ La prot ect ion int ernat ional e des biens cul t urel s en cas de conf l it armé” , 120 Recuei l des Cour s (1967), 61-163, at 69.
25
dest ruct ion of it s aura, t he deprivat ion of it s embeddedness in a t radit ion, t he separat ion of t he f unct ional basis of a work of art , and it s service t o (rel igious) rit es and cul t s.26
The cl ash of cul t ure and t rade (or commerce) in t hese sect ors is f ound in t he dual nat ure inherent in various goods or services pert aining t o t he cul t ural indust ries. From an economic perspect ive, t hese sect ors rel y on mechanical , and increasingl y digit al , product ion met hods, which enabl e t hem t o provide an al most endl ess number of such goods and services. These goods and services are charact erised, on t he one hand, by a great risk due t o init ial high product ion cost s, and, on t he ot her hand, by ext remel y l ow reproduct ion and even l ower dist ribut ion cost s. It is not abl y t he risk based on t he unknown consumer demand and t he pot ent ial of huge sums in revenues f rom t he possibil it y of cheap audience-maximisat ion t hat are some of t he maj or economic charact erist ics at t ribut ed t o t he cul t ural indust ries. At t he same t ime, however, t hese goods and services are al so prone t o become t ransmit t ers of cul t ural val ues in t he f orm of symbol s and may al so have a considerabl e impact on combined individual and col l ect ive human behaviour. It is part icul arl y t he f acil it y wit h which t hese goods and services can be reproduced t hat causes t he changes in t he individual t o f inal l y express t hemsel ves on t he col l ect ive l evel . Whence t he import ance conf erred upon t he cul t ural indust ries f or concept s such as cul t ural cohesion or ident it y. Unf ort unat el y, t heir inf l uence is al so considerabl e in t he case of war and et hnic conf l ict s, as has been report ed f or t he Rwanda genocide.27
The cul t ural rel evance inherent in t hese goods and services is recognised al so in numerous l egal inst rument s, such as t he Int er nat i onal Convent i on Concer ni ng t he Use of
Br oadcast i ng i n t he Cause of Peace (1936)28, t he Bei r ut (1948)29 and t he
Fl or ence Agr eement (1950)30
.
The dual nat ure of cul t ural goods and services is wort h anal ysing, using case l aw f rom t he EU and NAFTA/ WTO.31
The sel ect ed cases occurred in t he
26
“ What is aura act ual l y? A st range weave of space and t ime: t he unique appearance or sembl ance of dist ance, no mat t er how cl ose t he obj et may be” ; i bi d. at 438, 440-441.
27
See e. g. Noam Chomsky, Medi a Cont r ol : The Spect acul ar Achi evement s of Pr opaganda (Seven
St ories Press, New York, 1997) and Wil l iam A. Schabas, “ Hat e Speech in Rwanda: The Road t o Genocide” , 46 McGi l l LJ (2000), 141-171.
28
Int ernat ional Convent ion concerning t he Use of Broadcast ing in t he Cause of Peace, signed in Geneva on 23 Sept ember 1936, 186 LNTS, at 301 (ent ry int o f orce 2 April 1938).
29
Agreement f or Facil it at ing t he Int ernat ional Circul at ion of Visual and Audit ory Mat erial s of an Educat ional , Scient if ic and Cul t ural Charact er, adopt ed by t he General Conf erence at it s t hird session in Beirut on 10 December 1948, 197 UNTS, at 3.
30
Agreement on t he Import at ion of Educat ional , Scient if ic and Cul t ural Mat erial s, wit h Annexes A, B, C, D and E and Prot ocol annexed, UNTS 1734, signed in Fl orence on 17 June 1950 (ent ry int o f orce on 21 May 1953) and ext ended in scope, by t he Prot ocol t o t he Agreement on t he Import at ion of Educat ional , Scient if ic and Cul t ural Mat erial s, Nairobi 1976.
31
print media sect or, more specif ical l y in t he f iel d of newspapers and periodical s. The print media sect or is of part icul ar int erest because it const it ut es t he ol dest sect or of t he cul t ural indust ries dat ing back t o Johann Gut enber g’ s invent ion and as such is t he point of depart ure in t he l ong
evol ut ion and ongoing t rend of convergence of t he cul t ural indust ries.
4. 1. 1. The Eur opean Uni on: Commi ssi on of t he EC v. Fr ench Republ i c
Some t ime bef ore t he discussed provision on cul t ure was int roduced int o Communit y l aw by virt ue of Art icl e 128 (now 151) TEC, t he Commission t wice seized t he European Court of Just ice t o decide upon t he mat t er of newspapers and j ournal s in France.32 In bot h cases t he Court est abl ished t hat France had f ail ed t o f ul f il it s obl igat ions under t he Treat y, not abl y t he prohibit ion of “ quant it at ive rest rict ions on import s and measures having equival ent ef f ect ” (Art 30 [ now 28] TEC). In t he f irst case t he rel evant measures were cont ained in t he Code des Post es et Tél écommuni cat i ons which provided f or a
pref erent ial ‘ press-rat e’ f or newspapers and periodical s. It s Art icl e D 21 st ipul at ed t hat newspapers and periodical s print ed abroad were general l y exempt ed f rom t he pref erent ial t reat ment and subj ect t o f ees of ordinary print ed mat t er. Onl y where publ icat ions qual if ied as ‘ French publ icat ions’ , i. e. when t he chief edit or was of French nat ional it y and was resident in France, when t he home count ry al so grant ed simil ar t reat ment t o French publ icat ions (reciprocit y) or when t he f oreign publ icat ions were post ed France, were t hey grant ed t he same pref erent ial t reat ment .
Long bef ore court proceedings were inst igat ed t he French Government def ended it s pol icy by arguing t hat t he rel evant provisions did not “ f al l wit hin t he prohibit ions of art icl e 30 and t hat it was f urt hermore quest ionabl e whet her t hat art icl e was at al l appl icabl e t o product s which served as vehicl es of pol it ical , social and cul t ural inf ormat ion and hence coul d not be equat ed wit h goods” .33 In t he j udgment , t he Court di smissed l at t er argument s by t he French Government , not abl y t hat t he reduced post al rat e is irrel evant f or t he consumer choice, t hat t he provision is not discriminat ory because of t he reciprocit y cl ause as wel l as t he possibil it y t o post ‘ f oreign’ publ icat ions on French t errit ory.
The second case concerned Art icl e 39bis of t he French Code génér al des i mpôt s, which accorded cert ain t ax advant ages t o undert akings publ ishing
eit her a newspaper or f ort night l y j ournal devot ed mainl y t o pol it ical af f airs. The cont est ed advant ages consist ed in t he aut horisat ion t o est abl ish, by means of charge against t axabl e prof it s, a t ax-f ree reserve f or t he purchase of
32
Case 269/ 83, Commi ssi on of t he Eur opean Communi t i es v. Fr ench Republ i c [ 1984] ECR 843 and Case
18/ 84, Commi ssi on of t he Eur opean Communi t i es v. Fr ench Republ i c [ 1985] ECR 1339.
33
asset s needed in order t o run t he newspaper or t o deduct f rom t axabl e prof it s any expendit ure incurred f or t hat purpose. In 1980 Art icl e 39bis was changed by Art icl e 80 of t he Loi de f i nances (Finance Law), which excl uded f rom t he
said benef it s newspapers by publ ishers which t hey print abroad.
In it s def ence, t he French Government put f orward t hree principal argument s: First , it argued t hat print ing is a service and not a good, which means t hat Art icl e 30 is not appl icabl e. In it s l egal reasoning t he Court rel ied on t he ment ion of publ icat ions in t he Common Cust oms Tarif f (CCT) and in t urn st at ed t he sol e appl icabil it y of Art icl e 30. Based on t he Commission’ s concern, which was not about t he choice of a pot ent ial reader but about t he “ opt ions avail abl e t o newspaper publ ishers wit h regard t o t he product ion of t heir publ icat ions” , t he Court al so dismissed t he argument s t hat t he f act t hat a publ icat ion is print ed in France rat her t han anot her member st at e cannot inf l uence t he choice of a pot ent ial reader and t hat , f ail ing earl ier not if icat ion, t he t ax provision is part of an aid scheme in f avour of t he newspaper indust ry. For t hese reasons t he Court decl ared t hat t he cont est ed t ax provision of French l aw encourages newspaper publ ishers t o have publ icat ions print ed in France rat her t han ot her member st at es. Theref ore, t he t ax provision can be qual if ied as a measure having an ef f ect equival ent t o a quant it at ive rest rict ion in t he meaning of Art icl e 30, and consequent l y resul t s in t he f ail ure of t he French Republ ic t o f ul f il it s obl igat ions under t he Treat y. In t he af t ermat h of t he t wo cases, France amended t he cont est ed l egisl at ion and brought it in l ine wit h t he j udgment .34
4. 1. 2. NAFTA and t he WTO
In Cer t ai n Measur es Concer ni ng Per i odi cal s35
t he Unit ed St at es cont est ed t hree Canadian measures concerning t he periodical indust ry. The f irst measure concerned Tarif f Code 9958, t he ef f ect of which was t he prohibit ion of t he import at ion int o Canada of cert ain periodical s, namel y special edit ions, incl uding a spl it -run or regional edit ion, t hat cont ain an advert isement t hat is primaril y direct ed at a market in Canada and t hat does not appear in ident ical f orm in al l edit ions of t hat issue of t he periodical t hat were dist ribut ed in t he periodical ’ s count ry of origin. Not incl uded in t he regime were cat al ogues,
34 See t he new Art . D 21 of t he Code des post es, et des t él écommuncat i ons as amended by Décret n°
85-1156 du 29 oct obre 1985 Art . 1 Journal Of f iciel du 6 novembre 1985 which reads now: “ Les j ournaux et écrit s périodiques ét rangers sont soumis au t arif des pl is non urgent s ou au t arif des imprimés sel on l eur dest inat ion. Tout ef ois cet t e disposit ion ne s’ appl ique pas aux publ icat ions des pays de l a Communaut é économique européenne inst it uée par l e t rait é de Rome qui bénéf icient du t arif préf érent iel de presse dans l es mêmes condit ions que l es publ icat ions f rançaises” ; and Code général des impôt s (CGI) Art icl e 39bis 1bis Cbis: “ Les ent reprises de presse ne bénéf icient pas du régime prévu aux 1 bis A et 1 bis A bis pour l a part ie des publ icat ions qu'el l es impriment hors d'un ét at membre de l a Communaut é européenne” .
35
newspapers, or periodical s. The principal aim pursued by t he regime was t he “ encouragement , promot ion or devel opment of t he f ine art s, l et t ers, schol arship or rel igion” .36
The second measure was t he Excise Tax which provided f or t he imposit ion, l evy and col l ect ion, in respect of each spl it -run edit ion of a periodical , a t ax equal t o 80 percent of t he val ue of al l t he advert isement s cont ained in t he spl it -run edit ion. It def ined a spl it -run edit ion as an edit ion of an issue of a periodical in which more t han 20 percent of t he edit orial mat erial is t he same as a comparabl e edit ion and which cont ains an advert isement t hat does not appear in ident ical f orm in al l t he excl uded edit ions. Final l y, t he l ast measure concerned t he Canadian syst em of f unded and commercial post al rat es, which was mainl y designed t o suppl ement t he f oregoing measures.
In it s f indings, t he panel , and l at er t he Appel l at e Body, f ol l owed t he US cl aims and hel d t he cont est ed measures t o be in viol at ion of t he f ree t rade principl es, not abl y t he provisions on t he el iminat ion of quant it at ive rest rict ions and t he nat ional t reat ment principl e enshrined in t he GATT, and asked Canada t o compl y wit h t hese f indings. Wit h regard t o t he ‘ f unded rat e scheme’ , t he viol at ion of t he obl igat ions l aid down in t he GATT were onl y est abl ished af t er t he Appel l at e Body’ s report . In t he meant ime, Canada compl ied wit h t he Appel l at e Body’ s recommendat ions by int roducing t he cont roversial Bi l l C-55: An Act Respect i ng Adver t i si ng Ser vi ces suppl i ed by For ei gn Per i odi cal Publ i sher s.37 Despit e t he new act , t here remains signif icant doubt as t o whet her Bil l C-55 is in conf ormit y wit h Canadian int ernat ional t rade l aw obl igat ions.38
4. 2. The Legal Deci si on
This brief survey of cases in t he cont ext of t he EU and NAFTA reveal s a st riking simil arit y not onl y in t heir f act ual aspect s but al so in t he l egal responses. In t he l at t er case, t he invol vement of a ‘ higher’ l evel , namel y t he invocat ion of t he gl obal and mul t il at er al WTO disput e set t l ement , brings in a f urt her aspect . In al l t he cases, t he ‘ key t o t he f iel ds’ is provided by t he rel evant norms in pl ace t hat det ermine t he specif ic t reat ment of t he cul t ural indust ries in general , and periodical s in part icul ar. These norms advocat e t he f ree movement of goods across nat ional borders, mainl y t hrough principl es of nat ional t reat ment and most -f avoured nat ions. At t he same t ime, t hey are conf ront ed wit h t he dif f icul t y of drawing a l ine bet ween goods and services in t he product ion chain. The norms vary part icul arl y wit h respect t o cul t ure, or
36
Ibi d. , at 2.
37
See Bil l C-55: An Act Respect ing Advert ising Services suppl ied by Foreign Periodical Publ ishers, S. C. 1999, c. 23.
38
more precisel y t he way t hey def ine t he rel at ion of cul t ure as wel l as cul t ural issues t o t he principl es of f ree t rade. Last but not l east , t he f act t hat t he cases are set at rel at ivel y simil ar normat ive st ages in t he process of economic int egrat ion but at dif f erent t imes underl ines t he dynamic nat ure of t he devel opment of l egal rul es.39
The same dynamism appears in t he f act t hat t he EU has in t he meant ime amended it s l egal f ramework wit h regard t o cul t ure.
5. Conclusion
From a comparat ive perspect ive, t his examinat ion of t he l egal f ramework of t he EU, NAFTA and t he WTO has reveal ed an int erest ing regul arit y. The regul arit y consist s, as visual ised by Magr i t t e, f irst and f oremost in t he
ident ical process t hat underl ies bot h t he t ransf ormat ion of ideas int o real it y and t he f ormat ion of l egal norms. Comparabl e t o a hermet ic syst em, t he EU, NAFTA and WTO not onl y inf l uence each ot her but al so st ruggl e wit h ident ical probl ems and chal l enges wit h respect t o cul t ure and t he cul t ural indust ries. Nevert hel ess, t he overal l st ruct ure, and resul t ing f rom t hat al so t he normat ive approach t o t he cul t ural indust ries, varies great l y wit hin each of t hem. This is due t o a great variet y of det erminant s, such as t he number of member st at es, or signat ory part ies, l egal cul t ure, t he hist orical background and t he init ial mot ives behind t heir creat ion. Equal l y import ant is t he current st at e of pl ay in t he process of economic int egrat ion measured against t he background of f ive principal st eps on t he l adder of economic int egrat ion.
Moreover, t here is a st riking simil arit y in t he l egal responses given t o t he cases concerning t he cul t ural indust ries t hat arose in t he WTO, NAFTA and t he EU at dif f erent t imes. The simil arit y is even more st riking given t he dif f erent l egal f ramework appl ied t o t hem. The dif f erence, however, becomes manif est on t he next l evel , i. e. t hat of it s recept ion and impl ement at ion. France has changed it s conf l ict ing l egisl at ion f ol l owing t he ECJ’ s j udgement and amended t he rel evant provisions so t hat t hey compl y wit h t he recommendat ions set f ort h in t he j udgment . Canada, on t he ot her hand, has amended it s l egisl at ion onl y by changing t he l egal approach but has l ef t t he pol icy obj ect ives pract ical l y unal t ered.
As a l ast remark, summarising t he above, I bel ieve t hat t he key quest ion in t he cont ext of t he t reat ment of t he cl ash bet ween cul t ure and t rade val ues, as encompassed in t he concept of t he cul t ural indust ries, wit hin an economic int egrat ion proj ect l ies in t he process f uel l ed by a const ant int eract ion bet ween t he act ual l egal f ramework in pl ace and t he ideas about it s
39
For t he progressive devel opment of economic int egrat ion, see Bel a Bal assa, The Theor y of Economi c Int egr at i on (George Al l en, Unwin Lt d, London, 1962), at 2-3 (cl assif ying t he principal st ages as
improvement over t ime. The import ance of t his el ement , as ref l ect ed in t he int ent ion of t he part ies combined wit h t he avail abil it y of inst rument s, is shown in t he need t o compl ement t he gap t hat was creat ed by t he removal of barriers t o t rade (negat ive int egrat ion) t hrough l egisl at ive measures (posit ive int egrat ion). For t he WTO during t he Doha Round negot iat ions t his means t hat
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