ISSN 0104-6632 Printed in Brazil
www.abeq.org.br/bjche
Vol. 33, No. 04, pp. 723 - 731, October - December, 2016 dx.doi.org/10.1590/0104-6632.20160334s20150264
*To whom correspondence should be addressed
This is an extended version of the work presented at the XI Latin American Symposium on Anaerobic Digestion (DAAL-2014), Havana, Cuba.
Brazilian Journal
of Chemical
Engineering
EVALUATION OF POTENTIAL METHANE
GENERATION IN THE INVESTIGATION OF AN
ABANDONED CONTAMINATED LANDFILL IN
SANTIAGO, CHILE
I. Cortés
1*and S. Montalvo
21Centro Nacional del Medio Ambiente, Larraín 9975, La Reina, Santiago, Chile.
E-mail: isel.cortes.nodarse@gmail.com; lqa.cenma@gmail.com
2
Departamento de Ingeniería Química, Universidad de Santiago de Chile.
(Submitted: April 26, 2015 ; Revised: August 30, 2015 ; Accepted: August 31, 2015)
Abstract - This study presents the environmental evaluation of an abandoned and potentially contaminated landfill using analyses for the presence of heavy metals and for methane generation potential. The site is located in the city of Santiago, Chile, and was used as a rural landfill for domestic, industrial and construction waste until 1978, but is now in a heavily urbanized area and surrounded by houses. Analyses performed on 24 samples taken in and around the site show Potential Methane Generation (PMG) values between 1.6% and 11.3% of maximum projected levels. These low values, compared to those of an active landfill, indicate that waste material stored in the site has a low capacity to generate methane. Concentrations of heavy metals in the surface and deep soil are similar to typical levels for these metals in normal soil, according to international USEPA standards, and do not present imminent risk to human health. The use of the PMG test technique for the study of the health risk of an abandoned landfill is a new contribution to the Chilean evaluation methodology and management program for Abandoned Sites with Potential Presence of Contaminants (SAPPC). As part of the environmental management strategy for the site, two of the five operable units studied were transformed into a park after this study.
Keywords: Abandoned landfill; Methane; Solid waste; Contaminated sites.
INTRODUCTION
Studies related to the potential presence of con-taminants in soils at a site are varied and usually develop as a prior and fundamental step in the evalu-ation of remedial alternatives, recovery of the site for different uses, or both, depending on the characteris-tics of the location. However, there is no definitive, common methodology applied to all situations. To deal with this limitation, several comparative models have been developed to establish the presence of abnormal levels of contaminants at a specific site under study (Aslibekian and Moles, 2003;
Muhlba-chova et al., 2015; Rodríguez et al., 2015; Wen et al., 2015; Khan et al., 2008). For example, since 1995 in the United Kingdom it has been known that soils within 1 to 3 km of metal smelters may contain up to 15 times the natural values of Pb in the soil and also may present high concentrations of Cd at distances as far as 40 km from the originating industrial activ-ity (Aslibekian and Moles, 2003).
Cd, Ni and Cr measured in plant leaves in 2012 ex-ceeded those reported in 1941 for the same species by factors of 10, 13 and 16, respectively (Rodríguez
et al., 2015). The increase of these pollutants in the urban atmosphere was related to human activity changes during a period of more than 70 years. The anaerobic biodegradation of domestic and industrial waste in landfill sites goes through a complex pro-cess and therefore it is not easy to estimate the bio-logical conversions involved. Measurements at these sites must be performed carefully taking into account different waste sources such as pharmaceutical resi-dues, plastic products, antibiotics, and complex or-ganic compounds (Wen et al., 2015; Khan et al., 2008; Kumar et al., 2004; Aguilar-Virgen et al., 2011; Aguilar-Virgen et al., 2012; Angelidaki and Sanders, 2004; Stergar and Zagorc, 2002; ISO 11734, 2012; Kolstad et al., 2012; Gartiser et al., 2007; El-Mashad
et al., 2012; Angelidaki et al., 2006).
Human activities in Chile have generated loca-tions known as Abandoned Sites with Potential Pres-ence of Contaminants (SAPPC), such as old land-fills, uncontrolled dumpsites, or industrial waste sites. When abandoned, these sites may be converted to new land uses without additional regulation. Stud-ies of contaminants in soils at these and other sites have been performed considering the type and extent of pollutants in the involved area (Romero et al., 1999; Ginocchio et al., 2004; Molina et al., 2009; Escudey et al., 2007; Badilla-Ohlbaum et al., 2001; Palma-Fleming et al., 2000). The systematic evalua-tion of SAPPC in Chile began only 5 years ago, in 2010, and has targeted defined areas that have been environmentally impacted by one or more potentially polluting activities, which ended at some point with-out a proper site closure process.
In 2012, the Chilean Government began to apply a national methodology (Chilean Government, 2012) to identify and confirm the presence of contaminants at these sites. This methodology contains an ordered sequence of activities whose first step is the applica-tion of criteria to identify and prioritize SAPPC sites within each region. Subsequently, in step two, the Preliminary Investigation collects and analyses site historical information. In step three, the Confirma-tory Investigation collects and analyses site samples. See Figure 1.
The Confirmatory Investigation of the SAPPC methodology, as shown in Figure 2, is designed to determine representative concentrations of pollutants present at the potentially contaminated site, which are then compared with reference criteria to confirm whether or not the suspected contaminant levels pose a preliminary risk to potential receptors.
Figure 1: Illustration of the Chilean SAPPC. Evaluation Methodology developed and conducted by the Ministry of Environment.
Figure 2: Flow Diagram for the SAPPC Confirma-tory Investigation.
Suitable methods of analysis for this study were selected for quantifying the presence of heavy metal contaminants. To evaluate an abandoned landfill un-der the SAPPC methodology, it is crucial to establish the levels of landfill gas (biogas, consisting of CH4,
Regional level:
identification, prioritization, ranking
Specific site level: preliminary investigation
Confirmatory Investigation
Gather detailed activity and pollution history of the site
Compare with reference values
Develop concentration statistics for each contaminant Form hypothesis about the distribution of potential contaminants
Execute Sampling, Analysis of Water, Wastes, Soil, and Gas
Do the concentrations represent preliminary risk?
Communicate results. Execute preventative management
of environmental risks. No
C m es ev in la P g m C d 1 fi ci te b A ce th p co ta ea id p d w co ex C to so Evalu
CO2, H2S, N2
methodology stablish these
This pape valuation of n the Confir andfill in the PMG as a me as levels is a ment of the Ch
The SAPP Chile, had an ential, indus 962 and 197 ive municipa ity and wer echnique tha le barriers After the clo eled out and he constructi
ected that so ontain heavy The test ar aking into ac ach sector. 3 dentified thr oint consisti eep soil zone were collecte
oncentration xtrinsic toxi Characteristic o USEPA Te ource Conse
uation of Potentia
Brazilian
). However, does not co e levels. er presents a f Potential M rmatory Inve e city of San ethodology f an important
hilean SAPP
MET PC known as n area of 25 strial and co
78. Wastes alities located re placed us at did not inc or other sp sure of the d used for dif ion of resid oils in a land y metals, gas rea was divi ccount the di 30 representa roughout the ng of a surfa e. 80 soil sam ed for later ns, pH levels icity was me c Leaching P est Method 1 ervation and
al Methane Gener
Journal of Chem
the current C ontain details
a case study Methane Gen estigation of ntiago, Chile for determin contribution PC Evaluation THODS s La Cañame
hectares and onstruction deposited th d in the sout sing a rudim
clude the use pecial protec
landfill, the fferent objec dential housi dfill such as
and other po ded into six ifferent uses ative sampli e area, with ace zone, a tr mples and 24 evaluation o s and extrins
easured usin Procedure (TC
1311, establis Recovery A
Figure 3
ration in the Inves
mical Engineering
Chilean SAP s about how
y including neration (PM f an abandon e. This study ning the land to the advan n Methodolog
era in Santia d received re
waste betwe here were fr
hern part of mentary land e of imperm ctive measur e land was p tives, includ ing. It was this one mi ollutants.
operable un and owners ing points w h each sam rash zone an 4 trash samp of PMG, me ic toxicity. T ng the Toxic
CLP) accord shed in the R Act (RCRA)
3: Experimen
stigation of an Ab
g Vol. 33, No. 04,
PPC w to the MG) ned y of dfill nce-gy. ago, esi-een rom the dfill mea-res. par-ding ex-ight nits, s of were mple nd a ples etal The city ding Re-) of the ind gen Sim a p the sig bio is ing du cor bia Ma ma po of cat con sol wh gan mi be com Zn an me 20 sch con wi nin tha of ± 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
ntal setup for
bandoned Contam
, pp. 723 - 731,
e United Sta dustrial wast Abandoned neous distrib milarly, the g problem in t e surface wh gnificant cap
ological conv related to th g deposition ustrial and do Potential M rding to the p an Technical
anagement. ate anaerobi ounds in dige the biogas p tions for so nsists of car lid residues hich have bee nisms adapte icronutrients st condition mpounds of nCl2, CuCl2,
d Na2SeO3,
ethanogenic 10; Ortner e
Figure 3 sh hematic for nditions insi ith nitrogen ng of digest at might hav the reactor m 0.2. Methan
Silicone tubin Controlled lea Rubber plug, Glass capillar 500 ml anaero Beaker (500 m cylinder; 500 ml gradu CO2 from the
Displaced Na methane gene
the anaerobi
minated Landfill i
October - Decem
ates and in th es.
landfills are bution of dom
generation of hese sites an hile the sub-pacity for gen
version. The heir environm of metal-co omestic sourc Methane Gen principles des l Standard N
Water qualit ic biodegrad ested sludge. production”, olid residue
rrying out th in 500 ml en previously ed to these re
was used in s for anaero this solution Na2MoO4,
according archaea mic
t al., 2014; P hows the exp one reactor de the reacto gas for 20 m tion, thereby
e been prese medium was ne productio
ng;
ak silicone tub
ries;
obic reactor (S ml) for receivi
ated cylinder e generated ga aOH solution (
erated).
c reactor.
in Santiago, Chil
mber, 2016
he Chilean r
e characterize mestic and in f methane or nd can mani -surface trash
nerating gas e presence of mental persi ontaining wa ces.
neration was scribed in the NTC4233 “E ty. Evaluatio dability of . Method by with some evaluation. he anaerobic
batch react y inoculated esidues. A so
n this study obic digestio n were MnCl2
CoCl2.6H2O
to the req croorganisms Pereda et al., perimental pr
r. To achiev or, the system minutes befo y eliminating ent in the rea s adjusted wi on during d
bing;
Schott glass b ing any NaOH
containing Na as;
(equal to the v
e 7
regulations f
ed by a heter ndustrial wast r landfill gas fest weakly h can retain via anaerob f heavy meta stence follow astes from i
evaluated a e 2009 Colum Environment on of the ult organic com y measureme
minor modif The metho c digestion tors at 35° C
with microo olution of tra
to ensure th on. The ma
2.4H2O, H3B
O, NiCl2.6H2
uirements f s (Milán et a
2006). rocedure setu ve the anox m was flushe ore the begi g any oxyge actors. The p
ith NaOH to digestion w
bottle); H leaving the
aOH to scrub
m N m ex te g re th v (P th m E m g O b 1 c, th F st P su ta u la 1 T in an tr measured by NaOH during measured me xpected theo ermined that enerated wo eactor would herefore be e
olume of 17 PMG) result heoretical va The CH4 a
mined using Elmer GC C metal concen arbage samp Optima 3000 ased on offi 992; US-EPA , 2007). Figu he experimen
Figure 4: Vi tatically cont
Potential M PMG(%) = (V
RE Figures 5 ults tables fo able includes se for the un ayer accordin
-Unconsolid Trash, Layer
nclude the pH nd range of ration range
displacemen g 35 days o ethane volum oretical volum t the amount
uld be 170 L d work with expected to g 7 L. The Pot t was expres alue.
and H2S leve
a Gas Chro Clarus 500/5 ntrations in ples was perfo 0 ICP accord cial methods PA-a, 2007; U
ure 4 shows ntal anaerobi
iew of anaer trolled bath (
Methane Ge Vg(L)·100)/1
ESULTS AND to 9 contain or the operab s a short desc nit and the th ng to the fo dated solid s r 3-Deep so
H range in e H2S in Laye
in each laye
nt of a satura of anaerobic me was com
me. In this c t of landfill-L per kg of w h 100 g of w generate a m
tential Meth ssed as a per
els in the bio omatograph, 580. The de both the so formed using
ding to stan s of the US-US-EPA-b, 2
the physical ic digesters robic reactor (35 ºC). eneration wa 17 L. D DISCUSS n the location
ble units in t cription of th hickness of ollowing des surface mate oil. Other ta
ach layer, ra er 2, and the er. The resul
ated solution digestion. T mpared with
case, it was -waste metha waste. Since
waste, it wo maximum bio ane Generat rcentage of
gas were det , model Per etermination il samples a
a Perkin Elm ndard protoc -EPA (US-EP 2007; US-EP installation
rs in a therm
as calculated
SION n maps and the study. Ea he current lan each excava scription: La erial, Layer abulated resu ange of PMG
e metal conc lts observed n of The the de-ane the ould gas tion the ter-rkin of and mer cols PA, PA-for mo-d as re-ach and-ated ayer 2-ults G % cen-for Op ble (Fi sul pit ne sec loc rec gar me 11 be oil exp pe co tra bu tha con in in Pa pa cou rec the an the me ing fra hy the tio oth con car bio the hy bio Th fill wh Th mu cen 20 perable Unit e Unit Res igure 9) are lts shown for Garbage w ts, with diffe
sses ranging ctor. No gar cated outside In 8 of the 2 corded were
rbage had easured PM .3%. The m longed to a s ly black app plained by cted for this
In general, mpared to an ash has achie ut still maint ane under ap nsistent with 2004, and a the study b arcel 5, show
city to decom unt that ther ceived waste ere is not exp
aerobic degr e site.
At the end ethane and h g biogas wa action varied ydrogen sulfi
e detection li on in sanitary
her studies. ncentration o rbon monox ogas was ve eir study. Jaf ydrogen sulfi ogas was v hemelisand U
l biogas has hile Nikiema he low propo
unicipal soli ntrations (Z
15).
Parcels 3 an idential Wit
not shown, r the other un as found in fering levels g between 4 rbage was fo e of the landf 24 samples a zero, indicat completely MG values w
maximum PM sample with
earance of in the extende type of garb
all observe n active land eved an adva tains a low ppropriate co h previous stu are relatively
y Kristman wing that th mpose. It is e is ample ev es more than
pected to be radation rate
of each sam hydrogen sul as determine d between 5 de volume fr imit of 0.02% y landfill bio Desideri et
of hydrogen xide (0–500 ery small an
ffrin et al. ( fide concentr ery low at Ulloa (2007)
an H2S volu
a et al. (2007 ortion of sul d waste exp hou et al.,
nd 4 (Figure ithin Aband but are sim nits.
n 24 of the of degradat 40 and 370 c ound at the fill boundary analysed, the ating that in t stabilized. were betwe MG value f the character ndustrial gar ed stabilizat bage.
ed PMG va dfill. This ind anced state o capacity to onditions. Th
tudies conduc y similar to t
(2009) in th he garbage h
important to evidence that
35 years ago any further i e of the garb
mple digestio lfide content ed. The me 50% and 55 fraction was %. The low H
ogas has bee
al. (2003) f n sulfide (0–
ppm) in sa nd therefore (2003) also f ration in sa
only 100 p ) stated that ume fraction 7) found a lev
lfur compoun plains these
2014; Hla
7), and Oper oned Landf milar to the r
30 perforate tion, in thic cm across th
sample poin y.
e biogas leve these areas th
The non-ze en 1.6% an found (11.3%
ristic odor an rbage and w tion time e
alues are lo dicates that th of degradatio
generate m hese results a cted at the si those reporte he area calle had a low c
o take into a t La Cañame o and, as suc increase in th bage stored
on process, th t of the resu ethane volum
5% while th generally ne H2S concentr
en reported found that th
200 ppm) an anitary landf
negligible f found that th anitary landf
ppm (0.01% sanitary lan n less than 1%
vel of 0–0.2% nds present
low H2S co
N es w u T co
Evalu
For all the Ni, V, Se, As,
st concentra when compar
nconsolidate This is becau ontain metal
uation of Potentia
Brazilian
e metals teste , Ba, B, Co, ations were f red to the c ed solid sur use domestic
llic compone
F
al Methane Gener
Journal of Chem
ed (Cd, Zn, Mo, Mn, Fe found in the concentration face and de and industri ents.
Figure 5: L
Figure 6: Lo
ration in the Inves
mical Engineering
Cr, Cu, Pb, , Hg), the hi e garbage lay ns found in eep soil laye
ial wastes of
Location and
ocation and r
stigation of an Ab
g Vol. 33, No. 04,
Al,
igh-yer, the ers. ften
lay Th cee ean by in
d Results for
results for Op
bandoned Contam
, pp. 723 - 731,
The garbag yer of filler he concentrat
ed either the n soils or th y the United S
its Superfund
Ta
Thickn (cm) pH PMG (%
H2S (%
Cd mg/ Zn mg/ Cr mg/ As mg/ Cu mg/ Pb mg/ Al mg/ Se mg/ Ni mg/ V mg/ Ba mg/ Co mg/ Mo mg/ B mg/ Fe mg/ Mn mg/ Hg mg/
Operable Un
Table
Thickn (cm) pH PMG (%
H2S (%
Cd mg/ Zn mg/ Cr mg/ As mg/ Cu mg/ Pb mg/ Al mg/ Se mg/ Ni mg/ V mg/ Ba mg/ Co mg/ Mo mg/ B mg/ Fe mg/ Mn mg/ Hg mg/
perable Unit
minated Landfill i
October - Decem
e layer in th soil approx tions of heav e natural met e human hea States Enviro d Site Remed
able 1: Range of Va Layer 1 ness
) 40–70
6.57–7.53
%) -
%) -
/kg <0.06–0.8
/kg 18.1–148
/kg 13.4–28
/kg <2.39–22
/kg 44.4–128
/kg 10.9–28
/kg 3159–1607
/kg <1
/kg <0.38–18
/kg 198.9–18
/kg 10–50
/kg 11.8–29
/kg <0.31–1.3
/kg <0.46–99
/kg 9288–5752
/kg 232–87
/kg 0.04–59
nit Parcel 5.
e 2: Range of value Layer 1 ness
) 9–10
7.65–7.99
%) -
%) -
/kg 1.38–2.5
/kg 551–71
/kg 122–23
/kg 5.31–19
/kg 359–241
/kg 301–80
/kg 4610–950
/kg 7.81–18
/kg 25.9–43
/kg 83.9–116
/kg 20.3–57
/kg 15.7–25
/kg 9.71–16
/kg 100–29
/kg 25693–4656
/kg 487–64
/kg 0.60–2.8
Current Park
in Santiago, Chil
mber, 2016
he site was c ximately one vy metals fou tal concentra alth risk stan onmental Age diation progr
alues for Operable 1 Layer 2
0 40–280 3 6.65–7.98 0–6. <0.0 85 <0.06–2.6 8.2 341–115 8.3 10.9–420. 2.8 <2.39–23. 8,1 242–108 8.8 102–147 76 4924–1856 1.8 <1. 8.0 <0.38–29. 82 74.4–138. 0.1 24.9–24 9.9 11.8–24. 32 1.29–9.9 9.4 <0.46–144. 23 8025–7662 71 339–99 9.7 0.41–12.
es for Operable Un 1 Layer 2
0 120–190 9 7.48–7.73 0–5. <0.0 51 0.78–1.9 13 587–83 36 43–46 9.9 5.06–9.8 11 99–231 07 30.4–108 01 5536–736 8.2 6.87–16. 3.0 13.6–63. 6.2 62.6–102. 7.5 43.6–48. 5.3 11.6–22. 6.5 2.64–4.1 97 114–24 69 30547–4047 40 567–622 88 0.65–65.
k.
e 7
covered with e meter thic und did not e ations in Ch ndards define
ency (USEPA ram.
e Unit Parcel 5 Layer 3
0 40–210 6.85–7.23
0 -
2 -
3 <0.06–0.64 6 29.6–515 6 11.2–253 3 <2.39–12.6 5 49.5–392 8 15.2–243.4 2 4729–11764 8 <1.8 0 <0.38–21.3 8 95.1–198.2 9 26.6–59.2 5 12.9–30.7 4 <0.31–3.35 8 1.98–180.4 9 1655–41467 0 307–844 7 0.05–1.07
nit Current Park Layer 3
0 80– 20 7.69–7.94
8 -
2 -
3 <0.06–1.24 8 87.7–280 8 25.5–79.4 3 <2.39–5.29 2 66.4–221 2 <0.27–104 7 3610–79663 6 4.56–14.9 2 10.0–17.1 3 92.6–120.4 7 15.4–292.5 4 14.8–19.2 1 <0.31–1.63 1 75.5–150.4 7 20766–40602 7 413–865,8 4 0.12–32.0
727
h a ck.
ex- il-ed A)
4 5 6 2 4 4 8 2 2 7 5 4 7 4 7
5 w ch m la o la
At present and Actual P while maintai
himneys ins methane gas
ayer. The la ther sectors ater dates du
t, the operab Park have be ining the co stalled for m that may b and-use cha of the site, ue to differin
Fig
ble units iden een transform ontained garb monitoring th
be released ange manage
is planned f ng legal and
Figure 7
gure 8: Loca
ntified as Par med into a pa bage, and ha he emissions
from the tr ement, for for execution d environmen
7: Location o
ation and resu rcel ark, ave s of rash the n at ntal
act
wi stu for the og the
of Operable
ults for Oper
tion requirem The results ith the gener udy of conta
r Europe, 20 e Potential M gy should be
e assessment
Unit Parcels
Table 3
Thickn (cm) pH PMG (%
H2S (%
Cd mg/ Zn mg/ Cr mg/ As mg/ Cu mg/ Pb mg/ Al mg/ Se mg/ Ni mg/ V mg/ Ba mg/ Co mg/ Mo mg/ B mg/ Fe mg/ Mn mg/ Hg mg/
rable Unit Pr ments.
obtained in ral principle aminated site 000). Therefo Methane Gen added to the t of contamin
3 and 4.
3: Range of values Layer 1 ness
) 70–170
7.03–7.54
%) -
%) -
/kg <0.06–0.4
/kg 72.9–130
/kg 21.9–32
/kg <2.39–8
/kg 52.3–95
/kg 15.4–44
/kg 7211–793
/kg <1
/kg <0.38–17
/kg 124–13
/kg 27.9–52
/kg 16.4–20
/kg 0.51–2.9
/kg 87.6–17
/kg 21199–2978
/kg 265–42
/kg 0.06–0.1
roperty Reser
n this study es discussed es (WHO Re ore, this testi neration (PM e standard me nated soils in
for Operable Unit 1 Layer 2
0 120–230 4 6.36–6.9 2.3–11. <0.0 45 <0.06–9.0 0.4 264–131 2.6 101,7–853. 8.0 <2.39–15. 5.7 199.6–1319. 4.4 178.5–360. 30 4961–2708 1.8 <1. 7.0 <0.38–21. 31 68.7–108. 2.4 46.1–166. 0.1 9.5–16. 92 3.9– 5. 76 20–14 89 32322–4135 28 520–68 18 0.65–1.1
rve.
are consiste by the WH egional Offi ing shows th MG) methodo ethodology f n Chile.
t Property Reserve Layer 3
0 80–130 6 6.85–8.16
3 -
2 -
2 <0.06 3 49.5–109 3 19,1–34.8 4 <2.39–7.0 5 56.9–60.8 7 5.69–35.8 5 6376–11788 8 <1,8 5 <0.38 3 121–146.2 2 35–45 1 15.1–18.4 4 <0.31–1.63 1 25.6–146.8 0 19998–39490 5 303–401 6 0.12–0.68
ent HO ce hat ol-for
e
6 9 8 0 8 8 8 8 8 2 5 4 8
P 2 v w ac m ap
te la an so
ti la im fo co m b
A
Evalu
Study dev PMG values 4 garbage sa alues are lo which indicat chieved an a maintains a lo ppropriate co Concentra erial layer th ayer do not r nd do not e oils.
The useful ion (PMG) t andfill sites mportant con or evaluation ompletion of ment plan for le units studi
Aguilar-Virge zález, P. an constants
uation of Potentia
Brazilian Figure 9
CONCL velopment an between 1.6 amples taken ow compare
tes that the advanced sta ow capacity onditions. ations of heav hat covers th represent imm exceed the n
lness of the test for risk has been d ntribution to n and manag f this study, r the site tran
ied into a par
REFER en, Q., Ojeda
nd Quintero k and Lo of
al Methane Gener
Journal of Chem 9: Location o
LUSIONS nd analyses 6% and 11.3 n at the land ed with an trash stored ate of degrad
to generate
vy metals in e trash and i minent risk t normal level
Potential M k assessment demonstrated o the Chilea gement of SA
the environm nsformed tw
rk.
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