U n i v e r s id a d e F ed eral de Santa Catarina Departam ento de Eíngua e lite r a tu r a Estrangeiras
•TRINITY HI THE CONTEXT OF NORTH AMERICAN ROKANTICISK
D is se r ta ç ã o subm etida à Universiáiâe Federal de Santa C a t a r in a p ara obtenção do Grau de 1,'estre em Letras
l á r i á j a k d y r a cui;h a
F lo r ia n d n o lis . n __ :
E s t a d i s s e r t a ç a o f o i j u l g a d a a d e q u a d a p a r a a o b t e n ç ã o d o g r a u d e M E S T R E E M L E T R A S o p ç a o I n g l ê s e L i t e r a t u r a C o r r e s p o n d e n t e e a p r o v a d a e m s u a f o r m a f i n a l p e l o P r o g r a m a d e P Ó s - g r a d u a ç a o e m L e t r a s d a U n i v e r s i d a d e " H i l á r i o J L . B o h n C o o r d e n a d o r d e P Ó s - g r a d u a ç a o e m I n g l e s e L i t e r a t u r a C o r r e s p o n d e n t e » ^ A p r e s e n t a d a a B a n c a E x a m i n a d o r a c o m p o s t a p e l o s p r o f e s s o r e s : Paul' J e n k i n s , P h . D .
This study is also d ed ic a te d to HARRY SMITH, who made it possible^.
and to HUGH FOX,
S p e cial thanks to
P r o fe s s o r Nora. Ther Thielen,. from U ..F ,R ,.G ..S ., f o r h er p r o fe s s io n a l support d u r in g the past ten
years;-Mr. H aro ld Mercer M i d k i f f , P u lb r ig h t Deputy Execu tive S ecreta ry in B r a s i l i a ,
work-ABSTRACT
This d i s s e r t a t i o n is a study o f the book-poem T r in it y by Harry Sm ith, in w hich I point out the auth o r*s am bivalence towards i n d u s t r i a l s o c ie t y .
Sm ith w elds to g eth er v ario u s parts o f a l i t e r a r y past in w hich Transeeridentalist id eas p la y a m ajor r o l e .
This a n a l y s is o f T r in i t y aims to show the in flu e n c e o f T r a n s c e n d e n ta lis t id ea s on Sm ith and the e v o lu tio n o f these id e a s towards the Neo-Transcendentalism o f the 20th Century.
S m i t h 's g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f "n a tu r a l man" is i n c r e a s in g l y r e p la c e d by h i s acceptance o f F austia n man. S m it h 's b ia s agains f a c t o r ie s and i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n is moderated by a compromise w it h p r o g r e s s .
The ms.terial examined in t h is d i s s e r t a t i o n in c lu d es two o th e r ,b o o k s b e s id e s T r i n i t y : Me, The Pep-ole and The E a r ly Poem s. S e v e r a l iss u e s o f the newspaper NewsART and of. the m agazine The Sm ith were also exam ined.
V I 1 1
RE S UMG''
E s t a d issertaçã o é um estuda- do livror-poemæ T r i n i t y de Harry Smith:, no qual tentamos m ostrar a am bivalência do a uto r fr e n t e à so c ied a d e i n d u s t r i a l *
Sm ith fund? v á r ia s p artes de um passado l i t e r á r i o no
qual. as i d é ia s t r a n s c e n d e n t a lis t a s desempenham um p ap el importante.. E sta análise T r i n i t y o b je t i v a m ostrar a i n f l u ê n c i a das i d é ia s t r a n s c e n d e n t a l is t a s em Smith: e a- evolução; destas id é ia s para o Neo— Trancendentalism o do) século^ X X .
A g lo r if ic a ç ã o do "homem natural."' é gradativamente, subs titu íd a ' por sua aceitação- do homem: F a u s tiano* 0 p reconceito de- Sm ith c o n tra f á b r ic a s e in d u s t r ia liz a ç ã o é moderador por um com*-
promisscr com: o progresso .
O m a te r ia l examinado' n e sta dissertação' i n c l u i d o is ou - tros l i v r o s além de T r i n i t y ; Me«The P e o p le « and The E a r l y Poems »
D iverso s,’números do jo m a l NewsART e da revista- The Smith: tarn - bénr foranr exam inados.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter On e: I N T R O D U C T I O N ... ... 1
1 . 1 Statem ent o f Protrleirr... 1
1 . 2 Review o f C r it ic is m ... ... 4
1 . 3 Statem ent o f Purpose ... 8
C h a p te r Two:' THE PARAMETERS OF NORTH AMERICAN ROMANTICISM. . .1 0 Chapter Threer THE DEVELOPMENT OF SM ITH 'S THOUGHT ... ...2 4 3 . 1 The E a r l y Poems . . ... ... .. 24
3..2 "The A n t i - C i v i l i z a t i o n L ea g u e" ... 30
3 . 3 S m it h 1s-Work-under-the Pseudonym Raphael T a l l i a - ferro ... ... 35
Chapter F o u r : A CLOSE READING OF TRINITY ... 40
41-1 Textual E x p lic a t io n s ... .. 42
4 ..1 .1 F ir s t Movement: "O rd er fo r B u r i a l " ... .. .4 3 4 . 1 . 2 Second Movement: "The Growth o f The W orld Trade C e n t e r " ...60
4 . 1 . 3 T h ird Movement: "Day o f The B u r i a l "- ...76
4 . 2 O v e r a ll Themes and "Tdea._Biocks" ... ... 94
CONCLUSION ... ... ... . . 1 0 3
CHAPTER' ONE
INTRODUCTION
1 . 1 . Statem ent o f Prcrblenr
T h is study w i l l fo cu s on the text o f Harry S m it h 's T r i n i ty i n an attempt to e x p l a i n i t .
T r i n i t y , p u b lis h e d i n 1 9 7 5 , is Smith* s most important book. F o llo w in g the p u b l i c a t io n o f t h is epic poem, Sm ith w a s awarded P E N 'S 1 9 7 6 M edwick Award fo r h is p o e t r y ,h is commitment to' human v a lu e s and h i s achievem ents as an e d it o r » Harry Smithi h a s. been an i n f l u e n t i a l f ig u r e ' in the sm all pres»; "underground?" since? 1964- Also known as The Sm ith, he is the „editor o f the magazine of the same name and the paper News ART.. He is^ also a member of CCB®P*
Gbmiaitee o f Small' M a g a zin e s , E d ito rs
and-Publishers-B e s id e s T r i n i t y Sm ith wrote se v e r a l oth er volumes' o f poetry such as R a in s c e n t , a small volume o f e a rly poetry p u b lis h e d i n 1 9 6 2 ? Sonnets to P . H . A . a volume p u b lish e d in 1 9 7 9 and w ritten to Phoebe Lou Adams o f the A t l a n t ic Monthly as responses to Rejections C irc a - 1 9 6 6 /6 8 ? The E a rly Poems, a t h in volume c o n ta in in g some o f the poems p r e v io u s ly p u b lis h e d under pseudonyms, 19 7 8 ? Summer Woman, a volume o f poems m ostly d e d ica ted to S m it h 's w if e ,M a r i o n , and p u b lis h e d in 19 7 8 ? Two F r i e n d s ? and Me. The P e o p le, h is most recent book c o n t a in in g v a r ie d poems spanning f i f t e e n years (1962- 1 9 7 7 ).r a n g in g fron the "r i d d l e s o f The Sm ith" to pure lyrics^ as well as lo n g n a r r a t iv e works about the m ajor issu e s o f our age..
S m it h 's works have also appeared in many p u b lic a t io n s , i n c lu d in g B i t t e r r o t . D is c o u r s e . Dust. East V ill a g e 0 their. For Now, Ghost D an ce, The L i t e r a r y Review . K a n sa s Q u artely. P enuabra. Poet Sm all P ress Review , T r a c e . U n iv e r s it y Review, HT Review,, "Wonaword Review and The U nspeakable V is io n s o f The In d i v i d u a l . Sm ith h a s
also ap p eared w id e l y u nd er p se u d o n y m s ,e s p e c ia lly Haphael T a l l i a f e r r o and Adam Dunne.,
The S m ith , born Harry Joseph Sm ith,. J r . on O c to b e r 15^ 1 9 3 6 i n the S ta te o f New York, grew up in a house loaded w ith books- H is f a t h e r , a Jack Eondon s o c i a l i s t , u sed to read to h is son froan the books he himself was r e a d in g f o r p le a s u r e .
At the age o f e ig h t , Smith: read H ;G .W e l l s 's An O u t lin e o f H is t o r y and a fte r w a rd s he began to> v o r a c io u s ly read sb new tock each
day. When he was tw e lv e , he read E aw rence"s la d y G h a t t e r l y *s- loveg- a lo n g w it h a l l the books about astronomy, and p a le o n to lo g y 'h e tjould? manage to get..
Sm ith escaped r e l i g i o n u n t i l the age o f eleven, when M s m other f i n a l l y d e c id e d he sh o uld have r e l ig io u s i n s t r u c t i o n ^ w M 6 h he r e c e iv e d from the E p is c o p a l Church-Ibday he is an agnostievHe may
have some r e l i g i o u s f e e l i n g s and a t t it u d e s but he does not have an i n t e l l e c t u a l scheme o f r e l i g i o n .
In h ig h school Smith e d it e d the newspaper a n d ,b e c a u s e o f h is e d i t o r i a l o p p o s it io n to S e n a to r Joseph McCarthy, the s c h o o l p r i n c ip a l r e fu s e d to recommend him to college- Even so he en tered Brown U n iv e r s it y just before, h i s seventeenth b ir th d a y , enrolling in it s rigo ro u s program f o r a degree in chemistry- He had to v*ork veay hard f o r m ediocre results in-mafearatics'ard ■ science and, s o r he decided fo llo w h is E n g l is h t e a c h e r 's a d vic e and become a writer- A f t e r s t a r t i n g w ith love poems to impress g ir l s and satires- to amtsa him- s e lf, and h is friends-, Sm ith in c r e a s in g ly enjoyed the w r i t i n g i n>. it s e
lf-He was e x p e lle d in h is t h ir d y ea r at the u n i v e r s i t y f o r " f a i l u r e to ab id e by u n i v e r s i t y re g u la tio n s "- Has c h i e f offense was h is d r a f t i n g a D e c la r a t io n o f Independence, which was also s ig n e d by most o th e r members o f h is dorm itory. The d e c la r a t io n p ro tested a g a in s t the la c k o f student power in shaping u n i v e r s it y l i f e ..
The summer fo llo w in g h is ex p u ls io n Sm ith l e f t home ard be came a vagabond. In September* 1 9 5 6 , he returned? to Providence
f>r-se v e r a l weeks and l i v e d o f f campus w ith f r ie n d s w r i t i n g f o r t h e student n ew spap er u n d e r the name "S a s o o n ". H is p resen ce1 on t h & campus was d is c o v e r e d "by the A d m in is tra tio n because h is essays,corv- demning conform ity, h y p o c r is y and decadence^ in i&nerican l i f e beeass h ig h l y c o n t r o v e r s ia l, p o s i n g fu r t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s ' f o r h is ,future re- adm ission..
When h i s a d m is s io n f i n a l l y occurred S m it h 's p o etry a n d romance w ith M ario n C a m illa P etschek d i s t r a c t e d him, from h is stidLss. However,» he r e c e iv e d h ig h e s t distinctions, i n h is comprehensive exams i n E n g l is h l i t e r a t u r e .: Nonetheless: he failed^ to graduate on sched u le because o f not com p leting the requirements: o f one course- o a tim e.. About t h i s event Sm ith wrote::
The professor*. S-* F o rster Damony the renowned BI&h: s c h o l a r , s a i d , "Young man, you h a v e demons in' you and you must cast them o u t * " ’ He refused;, to accept ray la t e p a p e r s , say in g, MT d o n '’t d isp ute that they are b r i l l i a n t , but the c la ss did not have the bena-
£Lt o f th e m ."'
In the summer o f 1 9 5 8 Smith took a job w ith a small d a il y newspaper in M a s sa c h u s e tts , The Southbridge E v en in g News .Sera: editor Jim Sxiott he le a r n e d v a lu a b le lessons about economy o f expression. In 1 9 5 9 , b efo re becom ing a re p o r te r fo r a la r g e r newspaper, I. h e W o rcester T e l e g r a m .. Sm ith m a rried M arion on February 2 1 .
B e in g a r e p o r te r means d e a lin g w ith many sorts o f people - c r im in a ls , government l e a d e r s , businessm en, the l u c k i e s t ,t h e most le a r n e d , the most ig n o r a n t, etc- This work: d e f i n i t e l y enlarged Sari.lh's u n d e r s ta n d in g o f the w orld*
L a t e r Sm ith was an e d i t o r and jo u r n a lis t fo r a wide v a r ie ty o f p u b lic a tio n s : c o v erin g law , m ed icin e, a lc o h o lic beverages,his to ry, and many o th e r s u b j e c t s . He became fa m il ia r w ith the world cf M adison Avenue and the m ainstream o f B ig B u s in e s s*
By the time Smith, was able to found at sm all press cnapany o f h is own,. The Sm ith., he had accumulated a ric h l i f e experience..
p h ilo so p h y throughout h is poem-book T r i n i t y . The m a te ria l selected to be s t u d ie d also in c lu d e s The E a r ly Poems- Me..The People and sev e r a l o f the i s s u e s o f NewsART and The Smith"»' ’ ' ' n ' -«Mil IMMM ^ . .
T h is stu d y puts forw ard the issu e o f the Am erican Semantic h e r i t a g e i n contemporary Ui.S.. poetry, b r i n g in g out the core ideas o f Em erson, Thoreau, Whitman and Crane,, and. t h e i r d e f i n i t e i n f l u ences- i n H arry S m it h rs
work-F i n a l l y , t h is d i s s e r t a t i o n examines- T r in ity * s text ini an • attem pt to e x p l a i n Siaith,!s images and: symbols-* This s-tudy has. beat
supported ty ccntactsnw£6i the living au-ftor' hirnsalf during’ the whole literacy re se a rc h p r o c e s s *
I..2- Review o f C riticiso r;
Th s p it e o f b e in g a f a i r l y recent author, Smith' evoked im
m ediate a-cclaim among the c r i t i c s a f t e r , the p u b l i c a t io n o f Trinity i n 1975.- The. c r i t i c s * a t t it u d e became even more fa v o r a b le a f t e r Sm ith r e c e iv e d the PEN_”s 1 9 7 6 Medwiek
Award-. A r th u r K n ig h t , Award-. e d it o r o f The Unspeakable- V is io n s o f T h e I n d i v i d u a l . w rote; in The New. Y o rk Culture- Reviews . . . v.
T r i n i t y is so dammed good — — so b r i l l i a n t * i n fa c t — that I f e e l com pelled to' w rite at. review of
i t * . . I t w i l l p o s s ib ly tempt some readers- t o>
say that the comfort Ham ilton draws from: nature is too easy - — “'The tree^ o f Heaven f l o u r is h e d always
r a s p b e r r ie s burgeoned from the ru in s o f rude s h a c k s - **" — — and that it is not enough to- wateh the shad swim "u p r i v e r into- the f u t u r e " and con?— elude that man can command- the elem ents* But in a work as r ic h '? as th is one,, where the v ar io u s po
e t i c techniques^ become o b je c t iv e c o r r e la tiv e s to the ex p e rie n c e s set down, i t is f i n a l l y impossible f o r the a n a l y t i c a l reader-to say that anythirg woiks too e a s i l y . This is a book o f ^normous complexity^ a p o e tic h is t o r y o f our tim es*
O t h e r th an b e in g a pamphletariatt- work,. T r in i t y is a poet i c record o f the 7 Q r‘s and i t was w e l l . re co g n ized for- that. James Ryan Morris- wrote in Sm all P r e s s R eview ;
P eople I know seem to have fo rg o tte n what happened o n ly l a s t week, never mind 197Q-* and; that t e l e v i
s io n coverage that dw e lled so gamely on the eo;nv stru c ticm workers' running amok i n New Y o r k 's streets clu b b in g , stom ping poor h e lp le ss; bearded- fciids-,.an® a l l in the name'; o f patriotism ! . • • T r i n i t y shows a hardcore remembrance-- o f th at day, and t h i s book: is a b a c k la s h at the occurence . . . G n e i s ; reminded o f K enneth P a tch e m when re a d in g tim». this work, cause there' is a v ery strong fo re © contained h e re r that fo rce w i l l make t h i s one o f the ch u -te
st and in g documents- o f the 70'*s .. .. .. Trinity- is one o f those rare books o f truth that we seldom see these- days-, everyone is so hung up o n O' o rr— t r i v i n g a stance in poetry- that they fo rge t what the word p o e t r y means..
Ed San ders wrote som ething s im ila r s
This work,, i n the mode o f poetry/ that stays n ew s, is r ig h t there? — that is- . . . that p o e t r y s h o u l d a g a i n 1 assume prime r e s p o n s a b il it y f o r the descrip tion) o f history?.
liés W h itte n , a w riter- critic. w orking w ith Jack Anderson-, wrote- enthusiastically*- to Sm iths
Thankr you f o r T r in i t y 1. I fin is h e d ' it this- weekend and I thinkr it just g re at, b o t h as poetry- a n d re portage-. The pages 14 to 16 were more v i v i d thara a n y th in g I ’ ve w r it t e n about riots-. H a m ilto n *» telp- lessnèss- has been my h e lp le s s n e s s at such times as o ft e n I f e l t I was r e l i v i n g the worst o f thenrwWhich I guess you intended.. Then the sw itch to "Tb g?*>ocis, d e l i c a t e l y „ .. .." Very f in e s t u f f .
T r i n i t y * s pro t a g o n is t , John Hamilton* was compared ta)arsew Valm iki by Tambirautty, the e d it o r o f Eondon^s The Eyre bird- P r e s s . He wrote to Sm iths
You have created a new Valnriki, who" is the a l l — s e e in g n a rra to r o f the great In d ia n epic,- The Baa - ma y ana-, w h ic h a cco rd in g to the Harvard classics-, was the prototype f o r the O d issey y i g Ham ilton^ I hope he has more s t o rie s to telli u s .
account, and, most o f thenr, as James Morris, identified? with.' himr
H is ( S m i t h 's ) J?ohn' Hamilton:' is you, me, every mam who? cares f o r the u n ific a tio n s among the Am erican^ no m atter what the 'b e lie fs o f the i n d i v id u a l s
Seymour Krim also w r it e s p o s i t i v e l y about Ham iltonr
Harry Smith:*s f i r s t m ajor story/poem g ives us a. hero- who is to u c h in g ly (who can touch; himV), humane
not m onstrous* f o r a shredded? time l i k e o u r s . A s a m atter o f f a c t , John Hamilton: is; an extremely? l i k e a b l e and decent man* One would l i k e h i® to go> on and on* l i k e Nero; Yfolfe who bears: w it n e s s * T o> create a new ch a ra cter f o r one^s time is a humane; as welll as a r t i s t i c act that moves a l l o f us whoo need i n t e l l i g e n t and honorable fr ie n d s more t h a n
i d e a s * I won*t fo rg e ^ you, J o h n — you live: f o r m® l i k e a re a l p erson*
As concerns the Americans l i t e r a r y T r a d i t i o n in T r in it y . c r i t i c s seem to be s p l i t * W h ile Dicle H ig g in s,, e d it o r o f Som ething E ls e P r e s s ., seems to b e lie v e that T r i n i t y is com pletely innovating p r o fe s s o r Hugh Fox, from M ic h ig a n U n iv e r s it y , states that i t follows the same ep ic p a t t e r n o f The B r id g e . P a terso n and Maximus Poem s..
D ic k H ig g in s wrote in Contact H r
The h ard est k in d o f p o e t r y to review is that which does not resemble in any way the. g o in g schools <£ the a r t * One w i l l read T r i n i t y by Harry Smith) i eb v a i n lo o k in g f o r the in flu e n c e s o f 0 1 son* W. Carlos W illia m s * The B lac k Mountain: S c h o o l 'o r - although- it is where he l i v e s and works and e d its h is mag, The Smitfe — anyr o f the New York groups* It is as i f Sm ith’ usedi h is c e n tr a l location- as- publisher- and the- c it y to know what others- were doing a n d what he need not th erefo re d u p lic a te * In f a c t , tire- o n ly antecedent f o r the college- style and u s e o f found and concrete m a t e r ia l s are the new sreel seo- tio n s o f John Dos P a s s o s ' s U *S *A * In s p ite o f whidi the o v e r a ll tone o f T r i n i t y is not p ro sy /b u t Whit- manesque l y r i c a l * 9
Hugh Fox has w r it t e n in one o f the e a rly comments included on the dust jacket o f T r i n i t y p u b lis h e d by H o rizo n P r e s s ;
R a b e l a i s i a n Sm ith goes serious- and produces a giant in the t r a d i t i o n o f C r a n e ’’s- The B r id g e ., W illiam : *s P a t e r s o n ,O l s o n 's Maximus Poem3-» Themer human?, t o i b b
co m m erc ia l/ m ercan tile values.- Wonderfully? dynamic and apt i n t h is Y ear o f O u r Lord
1975-Ch arles G uenther a n a l y s in g T r i n i t y 1 s language and rftythnr w roter
A' stylistie- m a sterp ie ce .. » » a n a r r a t io n containing the f i n e s t elem ents o f ly ric ism : and su sp en se fu l dis- ma .. T r i n i t y is a poem o f confront rat ions,.be —
tween- young and old', weak" and strong,, id ea and: re a lit y *. More communicative than the .Cantos»more:.syiw copated- than Ash Wednesday, it is f il l e d ! with? t&e; t r a d i t i o n a l rhythms- and grand- scope^ o f Aniericaan p o e t r y from Whitmam to Crane,, Pounds and Cummings An a r t i c l e p u b lis h e d in; The Am erican L ib r a r y A s s o c i a t i o n journal1,, Choices,. i n M arch o f 1 9 7 6 i d e n t i f i e d Smithes- Whitmasrresqu©* i n f l u e n c e :
Sm ith is c l e a r l y a c h ild o f Whitman in h is use- o f the language-, and at times tocr’ much? soy the words get away from him in an u n d is c ip le n e d 3 torrent-But the bookr is- o f thematic' rich n ess and re veals a p>- e t i e hand1 th at is skilled* and sure most o f the tine^ d e s p it e i t s sa g g in g spots, it makes most recent books o f p o e t r y seem ra th e r timid: and d u l l . ^ Choice goes as fair- as W a lte r Low enfxeld who had s a i d T r i n i t y should be r e q u ir e d reading-» Choice- recommends the booie: fo r a l l co lleg e and u n i v e r s i t y l i b r a r i e s :
A k in d o f p oetry in whicha verse,, prose^ and drama merge is dem onstrated h ere, and it is quit® possi ble^ the poet has provided- a suggestive model for- o th e r poets w is h in g to deal w ith the public; r e a l i t i e s o f o u r tim es» Recommended fo r a l l college? and u n i v e r s i t y l i b r a r i e s »13
Regardless o f the relevance o f a l l t h is c r i t i c a l material, t h is d i s s e r t a t i o n attem pts to b rin g to l ig h t new c r i t i c a l per. — spective. on the work- o f Harry Sm ith, one o f the established: con — temporary American authors- o f the past twenty years who> are hardly
known i n B r a z i l .
1!.3 •• Statem ent o f Purpose
T h i s ' study doe’s riot in t e n d to show Harry Smith: as a pure l y Homantic poet but as an outgrowth o f the United^ S t a t e s contenr- p o rary scene which! is g r e a t ly influ en ced : by it s own Am erican past*
.. . 1 s h a H b a s i c a l l y p o in t out th at T r i n i t y is> an appraisal, o f n ature ..and human i n d i v i d u a l i s m and* at the same tim e* a. coim — mitment to tech n o lo g y . In h i s T r in ity «. Smith: accep ts the basic;
t ran scen d e n tal id ea s but,., also develops- a, Whitmanesque v iew of progress^, p a r a l l e l i n g h is w ork to Hart Grane"s^ The Bridge^.
I t is our o b je c t iv e to show that T r i n i t y is not simplicistt c a l l y p r e a c h in g the s u p e rio r o rd e r o f the past over the present and a t t a c k in g tech n o lo g y , commerce and i n d u s t r y . T r i n i t y favors a1
u n d e r s t a n d in g o f the machine age f o r i t is an appeal to manfs wise use' o f technology..
The means o f a r r i v i n g at these co nclusions have m ostlyr been a close a n a l y s i s o f the te x t i t s e l f .
I n choosing Harry Sm ithes T r in i t y as the s u b je c t f o r the d i s s e r t a t i o n we mean to show a non—e s c a p is t contemporary' pieca= o f l i t e r a t u r e . T r i n i t y is not o n ly important f o r i t s in h erite d; trars- cenctental id e a s w hich can be studied? in the context o f American l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n , but* a l s o , f o r the a c t u a l i t y o f it s anthropo l o g i c a l concepts w h ic h correspond to the mainstreams o f thought e n co u n te re d w it h in h i gift i n t e l l e c t u a l c i r c l e s ,, not o n ly ini the U - n it e d S t a t e s but throughout the w o r l d .
BIBLIOGRAPH I GAB.. REFERENCES,
^A u to b io g ra p h ic a l. in fo rm atio n w r i t t e n to the author ini liSO.
2
A r th u r W i n f i e l d K n ig h t , New York Culture R eview ,,(New Yorks Septem ber, 1 9 7 5 ) .
^James Ryan M o r r is , "H ard Core Remembrance11, Sm all Press Re v ie w . (Number 34-35* v o l „ 7 * n o v ./d e c - ,. 1 9 7 5 ) .
4
Ed S a n d e r s e a r l y c r it i c i s m in c lu d e d on the dust jacket of T r i n i t y (New Yorkr H o r izo n P r e s s , 1 9 7 5 ) ;
5
Ees W h i t t e n 's words in a p e rso n a l l e t t e r to S m it & on Q;cto— b e r 12,, 1 9 7 5 *
ß
Tambimutty:1 s words in a personals l e t t e r to Smithi on A p r il 3rd,, 19777*
7
M o r r is ,."H a r d Core Remembrance".
g
Seymour K r i m 's e a r ly c r it ic is ir also in c lu d e d on the dust jack et o f T r i n i t y .
^B ic k H i g g i n s , Contact I I (p».24)
■^Ugh F o x ’ s e a r ly c r i t i c i s m .a l s o in T r i n i t y . ^feharle s- Guenther- also i n T r i n i t y .
^ B h o ic e - M arch *7 6 . 1
CHAPTER TWO
THE PARAMETERS OF NORTH! AMERICAN ROMANTICISM
There used to be a tim elag between American and Englisib l i t e r a r y movements* R o m- a n tie- i s nr; which1 flowered' in. E n g lan d in 1 7 9 8 , w it h the p u b l i c a t io n o f W o rdsw orth's andi Coleridge's Lyrical^ B a l l a d s , d id not a p p ear in f u l l bloomi in the United. States-, u n t i l the m iddle o f the n in e t e e n t h century*
D u r in g t h is h a l f cen tu ry , the U n ited S t a t e s 1 went through some o f the g r e a te s t changes in h is t o r y * Around 185Q it was- s t i l l m ain ly , a country o f farmers.- Trade and m anu factu ring were growing1 -more im portant each decade but" i t was not u ntil, the I'8 7 0 fs that a m a jo r it y o f Am ericans were m aking a l i v i n g in non-farming o cc u p a t io n s .. M eanw hile, the p o p u la tio n soared from 23 m il l i o n to 76 minim
i n 1900'w. In the middle^ o f the century, negro sla v e ry was s t i l l sl
fa c t, in Am erican l i f e and the n a tio n was b e in g s p l i t in two by i t * The South d efe n d e d sla v ery more and more v ig o ro u sly ? the Nortibcrit i c i z e d it more and more e a rn e s tly .. The b i t t e r war waged between 1ie North and -fee South fern 183L Id 18$ perm anently a l t e r e d the ch a ra c ter o f Am erican l i f e . F o r many - Whitman f o r one — i t was the cen tral fact o f t h e i r l i v e s .. For the South' i t meant the l i n g e r i n g flavor of defeat f o r the negroes i t meant freedom from sla v e ry , i f not a l l the free dom en jo y ed by the w h ites*
A f t e r the C iv il. War the n a tio n entered a p erio d o f vast
commercial e x p a n s io n * R a ilr o a d s st r e tc h e d ’ from-one end o f the cmnfcry to the o th e r * F a c to rie s were b u i l t * C i t i e s grew* Fortune© were
made *
Am ericans, whether native- born o r immigrants, earned more than ev er before- T h e y .h a d more o p p o r t u n it ie s , more freedonr.Q'fteiry as a r e s u l t , they felt- a p a trio tis m ’, a trust i n t h e i r country, that made them sure that the U n ited S ta tes was the g re ate st nation* om
ea rth .. O n ly a few o f t h e i r fe llo w countrymen f e l t o th e rw ise;H o w - ever, these few in c lu d e d some o f the most notable t h in k e rs o f the tim e, and, most s i g n i f i c a n t , some" o f the b est w rite rs ..
Am erican Romanticism embodies; basically? the sam^ ideas as E n g lis h Rom anticism . It is. a r e a c t io n a g a in s t the development o f in d u str y and a h ig h l y c i v i l i z e d and a r t i f i c i a l style o f l i f e ? i t turns in p r a is e o f all. that is sim ple , n a t u r a l, even p rim itiv e ,.
Am erican Romanticism^, l i k e it s E n g l is h c o u n t e r p a r t ,does not . believe^ there i s no. mystery- l e f t in u n iv e r s e * but, on .the contrary,
sees m ystery everywhere; — in a flower* a tree,. a cloudy se s t a r ..It is a r e a c t io n a g a in s t n eo - classical,, dry,, in t e l l e c t u a l iz e d ,."m a t h em atical1" , r a t i o n a l i s t th o ug h t;, i t is an attempt to go back to i — m aginatio n,, p l u g g i n g i n s p i r a t i o n and i n t u i t i o n ,
... The Am erican Romantic.s o f . the mid-19tlfc century* w h &
termed them selves Transcencfentali.sts, were le d by Ralph Waldo Emer*. son and Henry D av id Thoreau,.
The p h ilo so p h y o f Emerson and Thoreau was stim u lated b y the m y s t i c a l .w r i t i n g s o f O r ie n ta l, lit e r a t u r e ,, e s p e c i a l l y the BhagSr- v a d G ita (a sacred Hindu text): and' the thoughts o f a n cie n t writers: like. Plato and P lo tin u s ? i t was encouraged: by sympathetic.- ideas, e- choing i n the works o f contemporary Englishmen! like- Coleridge, and
(S'sr l y l e ? i t was fed by the German p h ilo s o p h ie s o f K an t* He,geH. and
Gfcethe-.,
•'To t r a n s c e n d ,: means *to go b e y o n d 1' something,. For the Transc<aicierfcalists, the terirr sim ply meant that there are truth s -feat go beyond, or- transcend, protjf» These, truths are known to the heart ra th e r than to the mind, the truth s ar.e f a."l t em o tio nally evan though they can not be proved l o g i c a l l y ,.
P h i l o s o p h ic a l l y , Transcendentalism is the re c o g n itio n i n man o f the ca p a c ity o f knowing truthi in t u it iv e l y ,, or,, o f attaining knowledge tr a isc e n d in g the reach o f the s e n s e s ,
Emerson drew a shaTp d i s t in c t io n 'b e t w e e n the 'Underslanding*, w hich he meant the ra tio n a l fa c u lt y , and the "R e a s o n ",b y .w h i c h
he meant the s u p r a r a t io n a l o r i n t u i t iv e fa c u lt y ? and he regarded •R e a s o n 1' as much more a u t h o r it a t iv e in s p i r i t u a l m atters than •QxTep- s t a n d i n g '., G l o r i f y i n g i n t u i t i o n and r e p u d ia t in g a l l ex ter n a l re l i g i o u s a u th o r ity ,, he proclaim ed in a speeclr a t Harvard U n iv ersity
in l 8 3 8 r
' N o th in g l a s t sacred but the integrity? o f your m ind„
The Trans cendant si is ts h e ld that most o f what it is c a l l ed' "v a lu e s '1 lies .o u tsid e the l im it s o f reason and b e l o n g rath er to the realm o f i n s t i n c t o r i n t u i t i o n . I t is a m atter o f p riv a te ex perience^, f a i t h , and c o n v ic t io n * .
Transcendentalism is a philosophy w hich seeks: to e x p la in man, Godi, and nature- through? some means= o th e r than sense experience»
F 6r the TranscerdentaLists, the key word i s ; intuition-} the immediate g r a s p in g o f things- w ithout d e fe n d in g upon reason o r knowledge ..In t u i t i o n '’t r a n s c e n d s ' reason and e x p e r i e n c e ? . the greater* a raanrs i n t u i t i v e powers, the g re a te r h is a b i l i t y to u nd ersta n d the world around him..
Whereas the P u r it a n fo re fa t h e r s sought p r im a r ily to fin d the m eaning o f God^ and thereby the meaning o f man, Emerson’ a m & Thoreau looked Sq-t the d e f i n i t i o n o f man» .This r e v e r s a l o f ide^
caused a new s t r e s s upon the i n d i v i d u a l .S e l f - c o n f i d e n c e , self-irus^. •s e l f - r e l is n c e , and s e l f development were the concrete- b ric k s of
transcedentsdi thought» Emerson wroter '
There is a time in every m an'’s e d u c a tio n when he a r r iv e s at the co n v ictio n that envy i s ignorance.; that im it a t io n is suicide?? that he must take him s e l f fo r b etter} fo r worse* a s h is p ortion? t h a t though the wide- univer-se is f u l l o f good, no ker n e l o f n o u r is h in g corn can come to him but through h i s t o i l bestowed on>that p lo t o f ground w hich is
given- to hint to t i l l » The power w h ic h re sid e s i n> hinr is new i n nature-, and none but h e 'k n o w s what he can do,, n or does he know u n t i l he has tried.ibt
fo r n o thin g one fa c e , one character* one fact,rrdces much im pression o n 'h im , and another n o n e . T h i s
sc u lp tu r e in the memory is not w ithout pre-estaHifirjad harmony.. The eye was p l a c e d where one ray sh ould f a l l , that i t m ight t e s t i f y o f th at p a r t i c u l a r ism. We but h a l f exp ress o u r s e lv e s , and are- ashamed o f th at d iv in e idea, whicits each o f us represents-. I t may be s a f e l y trusted' as proportionate and good’
is s u e s , so it be f a i t h f u l l y im parted, but God will not have h i s work" made m anifest by cowardis. A man« is r e lie v e d ' and gay when he has put h is h eart in to h is work: and done h is best? but what he has said or done o th e r w is e , s h a l l give him n o - p e a c e .I t is a d e liv e r a n c e w hich does not d e liv e r .. In the attsgpt h i s genius d es e rts him; no muse b e fr ie n d s ? no i n v e n tio n ,. no h o p e . Trust y o urself': every h eart v i b r a te s to th at ir o n s t r i n g .
The s p i r i t o f God is everywhere- f o r the Transcendental is t s. Emerson r e f e r r e d to t h is always present force as the over—so u l flickerto r w it h d i f f e r e n t i n t e n s i t y . Because.: the ,fcomplexio.ii'',i c£ the over—soul v arie d : from flower- to- animal, to man. and because:- man tran scended each o f these forms, the human being,, by attem p tin g to be h i m s e l f , be comes divine-. It is f o r this- reason that an almost m y stical lo v e f o r nature i s ' seen as an: e s s e n t ia l featu re
o f . Transcendentalism. Emerson said?
Nature is the symbol o f the s p i r i t . ^
Through: m an’ s in t u i t mu*-, s p i r i t could be recognized' . i m the e x p re ssio n s o f n a tu r e . Thoreau* in h is experiment witlfc nature at W alden Pondt. seeks the m eanings u n d e r ly in g the symbols o f the New En glan d l a n d s c a p e ;
I went to the woods because I w ished to l iv e de — l i b e r a t e l y , to fro n t o nly the essen tia l, fa c ts o f l i f e , and see i:f I could not le a rn what it h a d to: teach* and n o t,w h e n I came to d ie , d is c o v e r that I had not liv e d .. I d id not w is h to live- what was not l i f e , l i v i n g is so dear? nor did I wish- t o- practice- r e s ig n a t io n , unless, it was q uite necessary.. I w an ted to l i v e deep and suck: out a l l that was rob l i f e ,.t o cut a- broad swath and sh ave c lo s e , to drive life- into a? corner* and re d u c e it to its- low est terms, and, i f it proved to be- mean* w h y therr t O)
it s meaness to the w o rld fo r i f i t were su b lim e,to know i t by? e x p e rie n c e * and be able-to- give a trus account o f i t in my next excursion;.
As f o r Emersonv self- relian ce; and independence? o f m indw s« v ery im portant and1* i n th is r e g a r d Thoreau: s a i d
':-I would not have? any one adopt my modes? o f l iv in g * each should f i n d his^ own way,, not h i s n eig h b o r’' s or h i s p a r e n t s " .
In the same s p i r i t he alscn wrote-;
I f a- man does no't keep pace- with' M^s companicms-* perhaps i t is b eca u se he hears a d i f f e r e n t dirurmer. Let hinr s-fcep to> the m ^ s ic w h ic h he hears,, however- m easured o r f a r away*
Thoreau-. condemned- a l l k in d s o f compromise* as Emerson* had done,, and advised* h is fe llo w c i t i z e n s to e n j o y l i f e f o r it s o wm sake.. They should sp en d t h e i r time* he to ld 7 theirr,. living- rath er than g e t t i n g a l i v i n g s
This w orld is a place o f business..W hat an infinite bustleIL I am awakened almost every n ig h t by t h e p a n t in g o f a locom otive* It in t e rr u p ts ray/ dreams.. There is no: s a b b a th . It would be glorious^ to s e e mankind'apt le is u r e at once .. I t is- no thing, but vnoEk, work* w o rk . I cannot easily/ buy- a-: blank bo o k t a write- thoughts i n ; they are commonly r u le d f o r dollsi® and cents-,. An Irishm an* s e e in g m® making- a minute in the f i e l d s , toair it f o r g ra n ted that I was c a l c u l a t in g my w ag es. I f a- man was- to ssed out o f a window when an in fa n t* and so-> made- a cripple f o r l i f e ,, o r scared out o f h i s w its by the Indians* it is regretted- c h ie f ly because he was thus inea—-p a c it a t e d for- — business!: I t h in k that there is m — t h in g , not even crime,, more opposed to poetry^. to philosophy,, ay * to l i f e itselfT, than t h is incessant b u s in e s s *
T h o r e a u stro n g ly b e lie v e d in u s in g c i v i l diso b edien ce to p ro test government a c t i o n s . He wroter
I have p a id no poll-tax f o r s i x years.. I was; put into j a i l once on th is account* f o r ome night^arr^ as I stood c o n sid e r in g the w a lls o f soliefc stone*
two or three- fe e t t h ic k , the doo;r o f wood and inn g r a n t in g w hich s t r a in e d the l i g h t , I could m o t h e lp b e in g struck w ith the f o o l i s h n e s s o f that ins t i t u t i o n w hich tr e a te d me as if- I w ere mere flesh ard b lo o d and b o n es, to "be lo c k e d u p * . * As they? could not reach? me,, they had r e s o lv e d to? punish, m y body;
ju st as boys,. ±f th ey c a n n o t. com e'at' some persons a g a in s t whour they, have s p i t e , w i l l abuse h is do<g* I saw that the State- was-' h a lf- w itte d , that it was t im id as a lone womarr- witlii h e r s i l v e r spoons,, and th at did not know it s f r i e n d s fronr it s foes,.and I l o s t g a l l my rem aining respect fo r it,, and p i t i e d
i t *
There was an u n d y in g stream o f optimism, running- forcefully b eneath each o f Em erson*s and Thoreau^s- essays and poems* Althou^a
i n t u i t i o n is prim ary,, a l l men are bound together- b y 'th e d iv in e l i g h t o f reason* and share the o p p o r tu n ity to seek the source^ o f truth; whichri they b e l ie v e lie.® w it h in them-. The burden), is man*1 s.own ter bear? he should seek: in o rd e r to d is c o v e r the f u l l force o f ii® d iv in e l i g h t , a n d r i n t h is way,, man would achieve p e r f e c t ia.nwS.a-— c i e t y * through reform , changes m an.
E m e rs o n 's own wo'rds h elp the u n d e r sta n d in g o f the true- meaning o f t h is v i t a l n in e t e e n t h century phil<rsophy- which so much: influ en ced su c c e e d in g l i t e r a t u r e s
What is p o p u la r ly c a lle d Transcendentalism-among u s, is Idealism ? Id e a lism as it appears i:nj 1 8 4 2 . As
t h in k e r s , mankind have ever d iv id e d into sects,the M ateria] i s t s and the Id e a l is t s ..,.* the f i r s t class b e g in n in g to th in k from d a ta o f the senses are me f i n a l ... The t r a n s c e d e n t a lis t ..** b e l ie v e s in m ir a c le , i n the p erp etu al openness o f the humane m ind to new i n f l u x o f l i g h t and^power; he believes
in i n s p i r a t i o n , and in ecstasy *
M ir a c l e , openness, in s p i r a t i o n and ecstasy - there- is 3spe fo r m ankind* They are the work po in ts fo r Emerson ana Thorea.ufc‘Jhey are the f i b e r s o f the Transcendental mind w h ich was inserted- in Am erican l i t e r a r y h e r it a g e *
The Transceadentalists t i r e l e s s l y sound the same chord, s t r a in i n g to b u i l d a new s o c ie t y w hich should a ffir m the rig h ts cf
the i n d i v i d u a l and respect h i s d ig n it y *
The b e l i e f in the in d iv id u a l,. the id e a that nature was en n o b lin g , the c r it i c i s m that commerce degrades men, all. were; b a sic p lan k s in the platform ' w ith which: the Transcerrfentalists tried' to' b u i l d i n l i t e r a t u r e an i d e n t i t y and a heritages f o r the young A- m erican n a t io n *
The id e a s and goals set e a r l i e r by the Transcendental is ts d ev elo p ed a lo n g w it h the U n ite d S t a t e s , it s h is t o r y and ch aracter and Am erican l i t e r a t u r e a c h ie v e d a new depth in the Romantic tra- ditio n ..T h e fo rc e s w hich made up America at the turn of the century? were numerous, but Transcendentalism su rv iv ed as the k elso n cf l a t e r Am erican l i t e r a t u r e *
W alt Whitman,, Em erson"s contemporary* was one o f the first v o ic e s to s in g b oth the p a s t o r a l and the urban- when he wrote: about New York: C it y , lo com otives, w orld trad e, a l l in the context o f d i v i n e l y ,ri n s p ir e d '" N atu re*
W h itm a n 's hymns to the g lo r ie s o f nature-and the rustic l i f e , and also- h i s r e je c t io n s o f p a s t o r a l v alu es in fa v o r o f t h e ;
crowded l ife : o f the c i t y r represent the new s p l i t values o f ® Tran scendentalism i n movement, a Transceidentslisnr w h ich was b e g in n in g to compromise w it h 'fciviI1i z a t i o n ',/t e c h n o lo g y *
In the development o f h is ideas W alt Whitman: was influenced most by the w r it in g s o f Emerson.. Prom Emerson he adopted' the ideas o f the need f o r Am ericans to be independent and s e lf- s u ffic ie n t ,, to do t h e i r own t h in k in g , and to' be dem ocratic*
Whitmans saw America as a nation.' o f in d iv id u a l s .. To' hinr as to Emerson, the i n d i v id u a l was supreme:
O n e 's s e l f I sin g , a simple separate person,,
Yet u t t e r the word D em o cratic, the word' En-Siasse.. O f p h y s io lo g y 7 alone nor b r a i n alone is worthy f o r
/t h e M use, I' say the Fbrrn is complete worthier- f a r ,
The Female e q u a lly w ith the Male I sin g *
O f L i f e immense in passion,, pulse,, and powerr, C h eerfu l,, f o r fr e e s t a c tion ' formed; u n d e r the laws
10 / d i v i n e , The Modern Man I s in g *
Whitman und erstood the importance o f the id e a o f demo-cracy composed o f 's im p l e , separate p e r s o n s ".. H is "Song o f Myself'* i s a d e c l a r a t i o n o f independence o f the i n d i v i d u a l :
I ce le b r a te m y self, and s in g myself,. And what I assume you shall, assume,.
For every atom "belonging to me as good as b elongs to you..
I l o a f and in v it e my~souI,.
I l e a n and l o a f at my ease:: o b se rv in g a speair o f summer g ra ss. ...
The smoke o f my own breath',,
Iffy, re s p ir a tio n : and i n s p ir a t io n , the b e a t in g o f njy h e a r t , the p a s s in g o f blood and a i r through! my lungs,,.
The s n i f f o f green leav es and dry le a v e s and o f ihe.-r shore and darks-colorrd sea-rocks-, and of hayr i n the b a m ,.
The p la y o f shine and shade^ on the tr e e s as the supple boughs wag,.
The d e l ig h t alone o r in the rush' o f the streets,. o r alone the f i e l d s and h i l l s i d e s ,.
The f e e l i n g o f h e a l t h , the f u l l —noon t r i l l ,, the song o f me r i s i n g from bed! and m eetin g the s m „ , Stop t h is day and n ig h t with' me and you s h a ll possess
the o r i g i n o f a l l poems,.
You s h a ll p o ssess the good o f the earth: and sure (there are m il l io n s o f suns l e f t ) ,
You s h a l l no lo n g e r take things at second o r thirds hand, n o r lo o k through the eyes o f the d e a d , n o r fe e d on the sp ecters in books,,
You s h a l l not look through, my eyes.- e i t h e r * n o r take th in g s from me,.
You s h a l l li s t e n : to a l l g^des- and; f i l t e r them from your s e l f
Whitman wrote about nature a great deal though he also
wrote poems which' show h is acceptance .o f urban values- and h is trnst iin p rogress.. H is poem "To a Locomotive in W inter” is a compromise w ith p ro g re sss
Thee in the d r i v in g storm even as now, the snow,, the w in t e r —day d e c l i n in g *
T h e e ' in the panoply, thy m easured dual, th rob bing and the b e a t convulsive,.
Thy blacK: e y l i n d r i e body, golden b ra s s an d s i l v e r y s t e e l * '
Thy ponderous side- bars* p a r a lle l, and co n n ec tin g rods* g y r a tin g , s h u t t l i n g at t h y s id e s *
Thy m e t r ic a l, now s w e l l in g pant and roar,, now t a p e r in g in the d i s t a n c e *
Thy great p ro tu d in g h ead- lig ht f i x ,(d; ‘in fro n t* T h y lo n g , p a l e , f l o a t i n g vapor—pennants,, t i n g e d
" witfti d e lic a t e purple*
The dens© /and m urky clouds- out—b e l c h in g f roirr tliy smoke-stack-*
Thy k n it t e d fram e, t h y springs- and v a lv e s * the trem ulo us tw inkle o f thy w heels*
T h y t r a in o f cars b e h in d * obedient,, m e r r i l y foiaorai^ Through: gale*'or calnr, no^w s w ift,, now sla c k * yet
s t e a d i l y c a r e e r in g ’?
Type o f the modern — emblenr o f m otion and power- - pulse o f the co n tin en t*
For once come serve the Muse and merge in v erse*
even as here I see th ee*
With' storm: and b u f f e t i n g ! gusts o f ."wind and f a l l i n g snow*
By d a y t h y w arnin g r i n g in g b e l l to sound; it s n otes* B y n ig h t thy- s i l e n t s ig n ^ J lamps to swing»
F ierce- th ro ated b e a u t y » .
Whitman* s 'lo c o m o tiv e1,1 is a hymn to the s p i r i t u a l i z a t io n ! c£ t e c h n o lo g y 'w h ic h i s l a t e r repeated by Hart C r a n e 's " B r i d g e " ,
H is u nderstan ding- o f progress added to h i s exuberant a f - fe c t i o n f o r New York* which was then in the process o f technification and h u r r ie d u r b a n i z a t i o n th o ug h i t s t i l L p reserv ed v e s t ig e s o f a M e i v i l l i a n o r Irvingnesque p a s to ra l p ast caused Whitman to w rite
some o f h i s most b eautifu lL.v e rsesr
T r o to ir s thronged, v e h i c l e s , Broadway* the women, the shops and the shows,
A. m illio n : people — manners fr e e and superb' —
open v o ic e s - h o s p i t a l i t y — the most corageous and f r i e n d l y young men* '
C it y o f h u r r ie d and' sp a rk in g w ate rs', c it y o f
spires-0 and masts
Whitman was also an inn o v ato r in American l i t e r a t u r e . Hi e thought th a t the v o ic e o f democracy should .no't .be haltered by tra d i t i o n a l forms o f p o e t r y . His. p o etic sty le was the fr e e v e r s e , po e t r y w itho ut a f i x e d beat o r r e g u la r rhyme scheme- H is in flu e n c e was sm all d u r in g h i s time but today elements o f M s . style; are; ap p aren t i n the work- o f many p o e t s . D u rin g th is century, poets- such as Carll Sandburg-and the ’’B e a t " Allen. G in sberg (and Smith))) hav e owest som ething to hinrw
From Whitman on there w%s- a gradual, s u b s t i t u t i o n i n the be l i e f that man was o c c u p y in g an exposed and threaten ed position* i n the scheme, o f urb an l i f e . Man would ncr. lo n g er be seen sim ply as
specifier i n d i v id u a l a g a in s t p a r t i c u l a r backgrounds but as a product o f .urban s o c ie t y , surrounded and made sm aller b y the c i t y .
B e fo re 1 9 0 0 , the U n ite d S ta te s was a l a r g e l y r u r a l country and t h is was what Emerson; Thoreau and o th er great 1 9 t h century w r it e r s r e f l e c t e d . N e v e r t h e le s s 1, Whitman, tra n s c e n d in g h i s time,,
e x u b e ra n tly , unfetteredly, s a n g h i s young n a t io n which, was; to* changs. I n the b e g in n in g o f th is century, the same s tru g g le w&s fought by Hart Cranev In an agony o f suspenses between- angrily? re jecting- the w orld about him , criticizing- education,, b u s in e s s , com merce, and the v u l g a r i t y o f Am erica, and se e in g in A m e r ic a 's vast be a u ty a. powear that he tried ' to understand, accept and exp res sy Hart Crane wrote one o f the most compelling* o f a l l modern poems,
"The B r i d g e ".
As we= s h a ll see? l a t e r Crane is a k in d o f b rid g e between n in e t e e n t h century Tr&nscendeitalism and the NeovTranscerxfentalism w hich s t i l l forms the base f o r much o f contemporary tF.S. poetry;
e s p e c ia l l y th at o f s e m i _ l,c o n s e r v a t iv e s tt: l i k e Harry S.mith.,
This d i s s e r t a t i o n in a way could be s u b t it le d Study in Am erican C o n t in u it y 1' because contemporary U .S .. p o etry is heavily
in flu e n c e d by i t s own American p a s t . The contem porary is a. resur gence o f . the autochthonous.. P a r a d o x ic a lly the most ‘“f lu id % quick silver- culture i n the w orld a t the same time is heavy with- native- trad itio n
-U n lik e E l i o t 's 'The Waste Land w h ic h is an account o f West ern C i v i l i z a t i o n 's apparent f a i l u r e , C r a n e 's The B ridge is t h e c e le b r a t io n o f the unbroken stream o f hum anistic id ea lism that he saw in the Am erican h i s t o r i c a l exp erien ce..
F a s c in a t e d by E l i o t 's tech n iq u e, C.rane fought h is p h ilo s ophy. lie turned to E l i o t 's o p p o s i t e s -- the v i s i o n s , the very mot toes .of. The B rid ge are those o f Whitman and Em ily D ic k in s o n .
"Tb The B ro o kly n B ridge'", the prelude- to "3he S i d g e " is an 'apotheosis-..of the t e c h n o lo g ic a l* part o f m o d e m American
0? harp arid a l t a r ,o f the f u r y fused*" f
(Ho^w oouldmere- toil a l i g n t h y c h o ir i n g s-tingsl); Terrific- th re s h o ld o f the prophefs- pledge* P r a y e r o f p a r i aft, and the lover-rs cry* — ' A g a in the t r a f f i c l i g h t s that skinr t h y s w ift Uhfrac-tioned;iidiomy immaculate sigfr o f stars,.
B e a d in g thy path - condense etern ity ::
And we have seen n ig h t l i f t e d in^ thine aimis..
Under thy shadow by the p ie r s I w a i t e d ; O n ly in darkness in thy shadow c le a r *
The C i t y 's f i e r y p arcels a l l undone* A lr e a d y snow submerges an iro n year*..* Q S l e e p l e s s as the river- under?- thee
V a u l t in g the sea, the p r a i r i e s ' dream ing sod,, Unto us l o w lie s t sometime- sweep, ^ * And o f the curveship lend' am ytki to (5od:*
‘Ihe acknowledges Man, the creator* as- g en eric anei anonymous* H is c r e a t io n is more important* In the American exper ience t h is crea to r is the master- o f a w ild continent and the aar - c h it e c t O'f the country*'s „dreams*
‘’The Br'icge" is a set o f. d isp arate poems u n ite d b y n a tio n a l f i g u r e s , le g e n d s, :. e a r l y h is t o r y , modern in v en ta tio n s - a l l i n t e r ^ woven to express the 'Kyth o f Am erica” *
The cen tral idea o f 'Qb Bridgs" is an organic; panorama stow in g the continuous and l i v i n g evidence of the past in the inmost v i t a l substance o f the present., _
”'Va.rr> Winkfe" is a t r a n s it io n 1 betw een sleep and immin e n t tasks o f the day* The p ro ta g o n ist leaves h is roonr. f i l l e d w it h
harbor-sounds and walks to the subway. In his walk he remembers his cteli-hood which.- is a l s o , the "childcteli-hood-1 of-the co n tin e n ta l conquest p ro ta g o n is t identifies- w ith Rip V a n : W in k le * who,- becomes the gosrdian an ge l o f the jo u rn ey into, the paste
Macadam-,,gun-gray as-the tu n n y ’ s b e l t * Leap s from F a r Rockaway to Goldem Grata« L i s t e n ! the m iles' a hurdy-gurdy g r in d s — Down gol'd a rp e g g io s m ile on mile- u n w in d s .
Times e a r l i e r , when you hurried' o f f to sc ho o l, — I t is the same hour through a l a t e r day- — You w alked w i t h Pizarro^ in a copyboo'kr*
And Cortes- rode up,, r e in in g tau n tly inn —
Macadam, gun-gray as the tu n n y 's b e l t * Leaps from F a r Rockaway to G olden G a te .,...
Keep ho ld o f that n ic k e l fo r car-change* R i p ,— Have you got your paper
And hurry a lo n g * Vara? W inkle — i t ’ s g e t t i n g latell In t!jhe R i v e r " the subway is a fi g u r a t i v e * p s y c h o lo g ic a l v e h ic le ' fd'r t r a n s p o r t in g the reader- to the M iddle W e s t . The extra vagance o f the f i r s t twenty—three:- l i n e s o f th is s e c t io n is a n irs-
t e n t io n a l b urlesq u e on the c u ltu r a l c o n fu s io n of the p resen t, a. great ag lo m eratio n o f n o ises analogous to the s t r id e n t impression, o f a fasl: express ru s h in g b y . The rhythm is j a z z :
S t i c k your patent name on a signboard
b r o t h e r — a l l over — going west — young man Tintex- — Japala-c — C e rta in — teed’ O v e r a lls ads and lan ds sa k e s l under the new p l a y b i l l rip ped
i n the garanteed c o r n e r — see Bart W illia m s what? M in s t r e ls when- you st e a l a chicken- ju st
save me the w in g, fo r i f it i s n " t E r ie it a i n ’ t f o r m iles around a
M azda — and the te leg ra p h ic n ig h t coming on Thomas a E d ifo r a — and w h is t l in g down the tracks
a h e a d lig h t ru sh in g w ith the sound — can you imagine — w h ile an EXPRESS makes time like- SCIENCE -COMMERCE and the HOLYGHOST
RADIO ROARS IN EVERY HOME WE HAVE THE NORTH. POLE WALL STREET AND VIRG INBIRTH- WITHOUT STOMES OR
and no more sermons windows f l a s h i n g roar Breadth ta k in g — as you l ik e - i t ...» eh?‘
So the 20th Century - so
w h iz ze d the lim ited ' — ro ared by and l e f t
three m e n ,s t i l l hungry on the tr a c k s ,.p lo d d in g ly w a tc h in g the t a i l l i g h t s w iz e n and converg|g
s l i p p i n g 'g i m l e t e d and n e a t l y out o f s ig h t *
N o is e r p o llu t ion,, impo sing- architecture-,, b u s i n e s s ,a l l ihe m e r e tr ic io u s and v u l g a r b eauty o f America were important -images th at Crane u sed .to show the a w a i t i n g actuality- .which; he f e l t ccuM be d e s t r u c t iv e and yet r e c r e a t iv e *
Qjrane re p resen ts' a curious’- c o n tr a d ic tio n that we± s h a l l see repeated! a g a in in S m it h t:s T r in i t y ; namely a dual loathing- and, at the same time,, lo-ving o f technology whicha becomes- sim ultaneous l y b ea u ty and b e a s t * plague and salv atiQ n v O f course- t h is ambi valence- is not new* Hermit Thoreau was enamored o f the , id ea o f i&e M odern* Hawthorne c o n sta n tly toyed (f o r example in ".The A r t i s t o f
The B e a u t i f u l " ) w it h the s p i r i t u a l i z a t i o n o f technology^. Henry' Adams in The Education! goes so; f a r as to equate m edieval mass re l i g i o u s sentim ent w it h The Power- o f the '’dynamo'"* Very traditio n s! a l l this- ~ — an h i s t o r i c a l l o v e - a f f a ir w ith the b r ig h t Medusa o f Technology and S;-cience..
B IB L 1 0 GRAPHICAL REFEREIMC3S “TI
R alph L e s l i e Ruskr, The L i f e o f Ral-oh Waldo Emerson. (Colum b ia ,. 1 9 5 7 ) f p ~ 4 9 2 .
^R alp h Waldo' Emerson,. "S e lf- R e lia n c e ",, The Complete Essays and O t h e r W r i t i n g s » Brooks A tk in so n (ed) (Modern L ib r a r y , 1 9 5 0 ) .
^R alph Waldo Emerson^. The Heart o f Em erson,;s J o u m a l s ^ B liss P e rr y (ed) (D ov er, 1 9 5 8 )..
^H en ry D av id Thoreau,, W alden and C i v i l D is o b e d ie n c e ^Shgtran P a u l (e d ) (Houghton,. I9 6 0 ):
5
Edmund F u l l e r et a l.,ed s- „ Adventures in Am erican Literature (New Yorkr Han cou rt, Brace & Jo vano vichf 1963);,. v .3 * p * I 9 9 ;*
6I b i d » p » 2 0 0 *
7H enry D a v id Thoreau, " L i f e W ithout P r i n c i p l e ",. Selected; W r i t i n g on N atu re and L i b e r t y » O s c a r C a r g i l l (ed). ( l i b e r a l Arts,3953)
8
Thoreau,, W alden and C i v i l D is o b e d ie n c e . 9 •
Emerson^ "The Transeercfentalist"V The Complete Essays and O th e r W r i t i n g s ,.
^*% a lt W hitm an,."One 1 s S e l f I S i n g " r American L i t e r a t u r e , Ruth N elson et a l „ ( e d s ) (Kansasr McCormick-ffiathers,. 1 9 6 6 ),. w 2r p . 5.
1 1
W alt Whitman-,,11-Song of M yself'", Adventures in American L i t e r a t u r e .. Edmund P u l le r et a l . (ed s) (New Yorkr Harcourrt, Brace
& Jo v an o v ic h , 1963)». v..4, p ..133».
12
W alt W hitm an*"To a Locomotive in W in t e r "1. The American T r a d it io n in Literature. ( U .S „ A . r Grosset & Dunlap,. 1 9 7 4 )
,.v.2,.p,.53-^ a l t Whitman,. "Manhat t a ",. Adventures in Am erican Literature-». v » 4 * p » I 3 6 .
14
Hart Crane, "The B r i d g e ", The American T r a d it io n in Liter a t u r e ^ (U .S ..A . :• Grosset & D un lap, 1974)-,. v .»2 ,.p p .l23’c*~40.
1 5 I b i d , p., 12 4 0 16I b i d » pp .1 2 4 1 - 2 .
CHAPTER THREE
THE DEVELOPMENT OP S M IT H ’ S THOUGHT
T h is ch apter is concerned w ith three o f S m it h 's worksr The -Early Poem s., "The A n t i—C iv il iz a t io n - L e a g u e " .and the writing- of-Sm ith as Raphael. T a l l i a f e r r o ..
The y/orks, a n t e r i o r to T r in i t y , are c le a r evidences that Sm ith rem ains b a s i c a l l y u n v a ry in g , unchanging.,. T r in it y represents the cu lm in a tio n o f a l l themes he ,tr e a t e d e a r l i e r and which: fornr; p a r t o f h i s c o n s is t e n t e p is te m o lo g ic a l, so c ia l,, .economic- v i s i o n . 3*■!•• The E a r ly Poems
S m it h ,!s e a r ly poems are an entrance into Smiths's psyche* a r e v e a l i n g c lea r in g ,. • r e v e a l i n g in so .f a r as they in d ic a te
themes: and .d ir ec tio n s Sm ith u ses throughout h is p r o fe s s io n a l career. . Sm ith .represents h im s e l f in" h is ea rly poems as- one o f the Romantics* with' a l l that im p lies? stress-on in d iv id u a lis m ? as par-*- tiall a n t ip a t h y towards i n d u s t r i a l i z a t io n ,, se b ia s a g a in s t factories
and time-sche-dries, . a strong f e e l i n g a g ain st the taming o f the i n d i v i d u a l s Somehow, in S m it h ’ s mind, taming means sla v ery and s la v e ry means fa scism .. As the in d i v id u a l gets tamed he lo ses h is
soul-S m i t h 's e a r ly poems p resent a f e a r o f e c o lo g ic a l d isaster.. W ith the w ise innocence o f a B la k e , Smith,, in h is own ingenuous v i s i o n , sees e c o l o g ic a l b alan ce threaten ed*
P a ra d o x ica lly ,.. Sm ith s t i l l , remains an e n th u s ia st f o r tha- m achin er o r b ette r,, f o r machine power,, l ik e Whitman in> E,To a. Loco^ m otive in W in ter"- W hile at the same time he attack s the fa c t o r y
and "th e m o d e m " he is a t t r a c t e d by them*
In a way t h is is not a r e a l contradiction:* Apparently this is a r e l a t i v e l y easy p u zzle to be solved? Sm ith aLf&reHtnates te-irem uhs
machine age as- regim ental io n and the machine age as power fo r the good o f man* On one hand Sm ith attacks- the neg ativ e a sp ects o f -fee machine age and, on the o th e r , he g l o r i f i e s the machine w hich oxQd, a c c o r d in g to h is p ersonal, v i s i o n , be at m an’ s service- i f appropri a t e l y used*
E a r ly Sm ith is a dream-oriented: Romantic. Sm ithes ea rly poems in c lu d e not o n ly poems based on dreams but also poems based on daydreams, prem o nitio ns and w aking v i s i o n s .
In "The W il d Ducks"', f o r in sta n ce ,. Sm ith w r it e s in', a simple but v iv id ' language about a re cu rren t dreams d e a lin g w it h ducks; he . h ad had s in c e c h ild h o o d * In r e a l l i f e the ducks belonged; to Sm ith ’ s
great u nc le and the p hlo x- lin ed cesspool i n ,t h e poem>was a t S m it h ’ s childhood home at Bellmore,. Long I s l a n d .
The m o tif o f t h is poem a r i s e s from a r e a l scene ins real time and develops in the l a s t l i n e to hypnogogic dream-awake visixi.. In t h is poem-, w r i t t e n in the w in te r o f 1 9 5 6 /5 7 , Smith b r in g s in ins p erso n a l f e a r .about death w ith o u t . resurrection*
This e a r l y Smith: l i v e s in a world' o f inmineirfc d i s a s t e r as he shows- in “ The W il d Ducks"'r
Somewhere on the w ater c ir c le
flashrim m ed w ith purple,, jagged phlox,, the w il d ducks, st r a in in g ,, swim in th rees and terror- close the c ir c le downi
Tense glossy m allards swimming our
brown p a ir s o f fem ales t r a i l the drakes^ and p u rp le—green,, magenfcish.een.eci,,
the drake i s s t ra in in g ,,
centerbone-Smith' p re s e n ts a micro:—cosmie- picture- in whicit the c irc le o f flowers^ j_s a m icro- scale "emblem*' o f the whole world--* And as
th is c ir c l e d isap p ears,, the rim (r e a l ''parameter-of the r e a l " ) disapp ears alo n g w it h itr
The w ild ducks close the c ir c le down and a l l the purple rim is gone
and suddenly a sunken stone 2
The w i l d ducks are sym bolic r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f ecology. Sm ith h im s e l f i d e n t i f i e s w it h the male duck as is in d i c a t e d in' the l a s t l i n e s and changes from the t h ir d to the f i r s t persons
Tensing,, sw irlin g ^1 ' terro r—'turning,, the drake has closed the c i r c l e down? and crossed- the sunken cehterstone •— my l i f e i s stuck:, my soul: is go n e.
The m inute th at th ere is a breakdown* a?, destru ctio n: ini the e c o lo g ic a l, c i r c l e which- co n tains the w o rld * Smith; h im s e lf f e e l s e x i s t e n t i a l i l y threatened.1. There is., an e s s e n t i a l connection' betw een s e l f and. w orlds a''closeness", o f S m ith ' s owns nature w ith e x t e r n a l " r e a l i t y " , which'..reappears again- in T r i n i t y .
S m i t h 's p r a i s e f o r the n a tural is clear-in* m any o f ' M s o th e r poems... In- 'Unthinking" he attacks garters' and corsets,pointixg them out as sig n s o f women"s modern a r t i f i c i a l i t y .
Smith: im p lies that contemporary c i v i l i z a t i o n ' is " ‘co a rs e ": because- women are wearing, " a r t i f i c i a l " clo thes and sm ellin g
i
unnatural.. perfum es r
Perfum ated primate
c r a c k lin g w i t h e l a s t i c r u b s ; I , u n t h in k in g well,, _
yearn-1 f o r hardier., smells: ^ andi s ilk e n ; le a p s o f le o p a rd s
Ten years a f t e r t h is poem was w r it t e n ( 1 9 5 4 / 5 ) , "th e 'n a t u r a l ' a n t i —g a r t e r a p p ro a c h "’ turned to be f a s h i o n a b l e . But Smith's poenr is p art o f - h ls Ku n t h i n k i n g ", a n t i —city,, a n t i - a r t i f i c i a l i t y ,, anti-machine*, a n t i —r a t i o n a l i t y s t a n c e . E p is t e m o lo g ic a l l y speak in g he i s in t e r e s t e d in becom ing one w ith nature,, ec h o in g the tra d i t i o n a l Romantic Liebsta>5. i n_to- The A l l /o v e r s o u l .
In " I c e S o n g ": Smith preaches a c y c lic end o f h is t o r y in which c i v i l i z a t i o n is g o in g to-, end and cavemen h u n tin g d e er are. go ing to re turnr
