Human-Chimpanzee Sympatry and Interactions in Cantanhez National Park, Guinea-Bissau: Current Research and Future Directions

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Guinea-Bissau: Current Research and Future Directions

Author(s): Kimberley J. Hockings and Claudia Sousa

Source: Primate Conservation, 26(1):57-65.

Published By: Conservation International

https://doi.org/10.1896/052.026.0104

URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1896/052.026.0104

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57

Primate Conservation 2013 (26): 57–65

Human-Chimpanzee Sympatry and Interactions in Cantanhez National

Park, Guinea-Bissau: Current Research and Future Directions

Kimberley J. Hockings¹

_²

_{³ and Claudia Sousa¹}

_²

1_{Departmento de Antropologia, Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas,Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal} 2_{Centre for Research in Anthropology (CRIA), Portugal}

3_{Anthropology Centre for Conservation, Environment and Development, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK}

Abstract: Increasing human populations and the rapid conversion of forest to agricultural land increase the likelihood of

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approach that assesses the implications of sympatry for primate conservation and human social, cultural and economic needs.

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current and future sympatric relationships, and integrate preliminary data on resource competition from one hitherto unstudied chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus)FRPPXQLW\LQKDELWLQJDIRUHVWHGDJULFXOWXUDOPDWUL[LQ&DLTXHQHDQG&DGLTXHFHQWUDO&DQWDQ

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Introduction

Increasing human populations and the rapid conversion of forest to agricultural land mostly have a negative impact on nonhuman primates (hereafter primates) by reducing and isolating ranging areas and increasing the likelihood of spatial and ecological overlap. In certain situations traditional

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-PHQWVLQH[FHSWLRQDOSUR[LPLW\WRSHRSOH)XHQWHVDQG:ROIH 3DWHUVRQ DQG:DOOLV 7KH QDWXUH RI KXPDQSUL -mate interactions varies but is often characterized by resource

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cross-disciplinary approach, such as that used in ethnoprima-tological research, increases our understanding of the reali-ties facing both humans and primates and the sustainability of

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and beliefs (Hill et al6DMet al.'LFNPDQ

HPSOR\LQJWUDGLWLRQDOPHWKRGVRIGHDOLQJZLWKSUREOHPZLOG -life such as hunting, competition over cultivated resources FDQHDVLO\HVFDODWH0DGGHQ:HEEHUet al. 2007).

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Chimpanzees in anthropogenic habitats

Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in particular are of spe-FLDOLPSRUWDQFHLQWHUPVRIWKHLUFRPSOH[VRFLDODQGFXOWXUDO UHODWLRQVKLSZLWKKXPDQVDQGDUHRIWHQDWWULEXWHGKXPDQOLNH FKDUDFWHULVWLFV.RKOHU/LNHZLVHWKH\DUHZLGHO\XVHG by conservation organizations as a charismatic umbrella spe-cies for conservation. Although chimpanzees are considered ULSHIUXLWVSHFLDOLVWV*RRGDOO:UDQJKDPet al.

WKH\VKRZKLJKOHYHOVRIHFRORJLFDODQGEHKDYLRUDOÀH[LELOLW\ and are able to adapt to areas of secondary vegetation and human agriculture impinging on their natural habitat (Reyn-ROGV <DPDNRVKL 7KH\ IUHTXHQWO\ FRQÀLFW ZLWK WKH LQWHUHVWV RI ORFDO SHRSOH KRZHYHU GXH WR FURSUDLGLQJ and in some cases, by threatening people’s personal safety

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Humans and Chimpanzees in Guinea-Bissau

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authorities and the local population for the need to take action to conserve the biodiversity of this area, in addition to the

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-WRXULVP*LSSROLWLet al. 2003).

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and supports a large proportion of the country’s remaining closed (or primary subhumid) forest (Oom et al.7KH

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regulations are not enforced, and there is very little formal

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Human activities have resulted in areas of scrubland and

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and-burn’) agriculture for subsistence crops such as rice (Oryza spp.), cassava (Manihot esculenta) and beans (Vigna unguiculataDQGWKHFRQYHUVLRQRIIRUHVWLQWRFDVKHZ Ana-cardium occidentalisSODQWDWLRQV7KHSURSRUWLRQRIGU\ODQG

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Biological and anthropogenic diversity

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Cantanhez area by at least the 15th _{Century and are the last}

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2000). A number of different ethnic groups have entered the DUHDVLQFHWKHQWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWRIZKLFKDUHWKH%DODQWD WKH)XODZKRintroduced the Islamic religion) and the Sosso

&DUYDOKR7HPXGRDQG6FKLHIHU. About 70% of

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recent population census estimates 22,505 people living there,

ZLWKDSRSXODWLRQGHQVLW\RIDSSUR[LPDWHO\SHRSOHNPð 7KHZLOGOLIHRIWKH&13LVYHU\ULFKDQGLQFOXGHVVHYHQ SULPDWHV*LSSROLWLDQG'HOO¶2PRWKHZHVWHUQFKLP -panzee, colobus monkeys (Procolobus badius temminckii

and Colobus polykomos *XLQHD EDERRQ Papio papio), green monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops sabaeus), Campbell’s monkey (Cercopithecus campbelli) and Senegal bushbaby

(*DODJR VHQHJDOHQVLV). Controlled seasonal hunting in the

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certain species, mostly baboons, are often captured to keep as pets.

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Of the four recognized subspecies of chimpanzees, the

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/HHet al. 7HOHNL %XW\QVNL VXEVHTXHQW

UHSRUWV HVWLPDWHG WKDW EHWZHHQ DQG LQGLYLGXDOV DUH FXUUHQWO\ SUHVHQW *LSSROLWLet al. 2003). More recently,

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2003 and, depending on three different chimpanzee density

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road-crossing points) of chimpanzees, the location of chim-panzee sign (nests, feces, knuckle prints, feeding remains),

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60 SUHVHQWLQWKHIRUHVWHGDUHDVRIFHQWUDO&DQWDQKH]VHH)LJ +RFNLQJVXQSXEOLVKHGGDWDWKLVLVVXSSRUWHGE\SUHOLPLQDU\ JHQHWLFDQDO\VHV5XL6iXQSXEOLVKHGGDWD8VLQJTXHVWLRQ -QDLUHGDWDFROOHFWHGIURPORFDOKXQWHUV%UXJLqUHet al.

suggested that chimpanzees are also present around all sur-veyed villages (n = LQ VRXWKHUQ *XLQHD%LVVDX PRUH VSHFL¿FDOO\EHWZHHQWKH&RUXEDO5LYHUDQGWKHERUGHUZLWK *XLQHD

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ORFDO SHRSOH LQ *XLQHD%LVVDX IUHTXHQWO\ FRPH LQWR FRQWDFWZLWKFKLPSDQ]HHVRQURDGVLQFXOWLYDWHGDUHDVDQG around the edges of forest fragments. Although detailed data RQ KXPDQFKLPSDQ]HH LQWHUDFWLRQV LQ *XLQHD%LVVDX DUH lacking, interactions can be broadly categorized into several QRQPXWXDOO\H[FOXVLYHDUHDVLQFOXGLQJGLVHDVHWUDQVPLVVLRQ FXOWXUDODWWLWXGHVSHUFHSWLRQVWRZDUGVFKLPSDQ]HHVDQGWKHLU KDELWDWDQGRYHUODSSLQJFXOWLYDWHGDQGZLOGUHVRXUFHXVH

Disease transmission

'DWDRQGLVHDVHWUDQVPLVVLRQEHWZHHQORFDOSHRSOHDQG FKLPSDQ]HHVLQ*XLQHD%LVVDXDUHRQO\QRZEHFRPLQJDYDLO -able. Humans and chimpanzees in Cantanhez share various parasites, in particular Blastocystis hominis and Trichuris

trichura WKH SUHYDOHQFH RI ZKLFK LQGLFDWHV WKDW GHJUHH RI

habitat disturbance might affect transmission and persistence of such pathogens in this area (Sá et al. 7KH SRWHQ -WLDOIRUELGLUHFWLRQDOSDWKRJHQH[FKDQJHIRUH[DPSOH(QJHO

et al. LWV UHODWLRQVKLS ZLWK UDQJH RYHUODS EHWZHHQ

humans and primates, and its effect on primate conservation LQ *XLQHD%LVVDX FHUWDLQO\ UHTXLUHV GHWDLOHG UHVHDUFK )XU -WKHUPRUHWKHULVNRIGLVHDVHWUDQVPLVVLRQEHWZHHQUHVHDUFK -ers and chimpanzees (as documented by Köndgen et al.

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Local cultural attitudes

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Ceiba pentandra, Parinari excelsa, Dialium guineense, and

Treculia africana) having symbolic and religious meanings WKDW RIIHU D GHJUHH RI WUDGLWLRQDO KDELWDW SURWHFWLRQ )UD]mR 0RUHLUD6RXVDDQG)UD]mR0RUHLUD/LNH -ZLVH FKLPSDQ]HHV²Dári LQ &UHROH²DUH QRW KXQWHG IRU

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Humans and Chimpanzees in Guinea-Bissau

61 FKLPSDQ]HHVLQ&DQWDQKH]DUHFODVVL¿HGDVµKLJKO\QRQHGL -EOH¶DPRQJWKH%DODQWDHWKQLFJURXSRZLQJWRWKHLUUHVHP -blance to humans. Although chimpanzee meat is not con-sumed, there is some suggestion that other body parts still PLJKWEHXVHGLQWUDGLWLRQDOPHGLFLQH*LSSROLWLet al. 2003), and an illegal pet trade in infant chimpanzees persists (Casa-nova and Sousa 2006).

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0F/HQQDQDQG+LOO3UHOLPLQDU\REVHUYDWLRQVVXJJHVW that people mostly remain calm in the presence of the chim-SDQ]HHV+RFNLQJVXQSXEOLVKHGGDWDVHH)LJ7RFRUURER -rate this, to date there have been no reports of attacks by chim-panzees on local people at this site, and this likely contributes to their indifferent or positive perceptions of chimpanzees in this area.

Overlapping resource use – crops

,Q WHUPV RI UHVRXUFH FRPSHWLWLRQ RI LQWHUYLHZ -HHV IURP D TXHVWLRQQDLUH VXUYH\ RI ORFDO KXQWHUV LQ VRXWK -HUQ *XLQHD%LVVDX UHSRUWHG WKDW FKLPSDQ]HHV UDLGHG FURSV especially maize (Zea mays) and sugarcane (Saccharum

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ZHOODVFDVKFURSVDUHFXOWLYDWHGE\SHRSOHLQWKHYLOODJHVRI &DLTXHQHDQG&DGLTXH0RVWIUXLWWUHHVDUHLQVPDOOSDWFKHV FORVHWRSHRSOH¶VKRXVHVDQGWKHPDMRULW\RIFXOWLYDWHGDUHDV FRQWDLQWKHFDVKFURSFDVKHZ+RFNLQJVDQG6RXVDLQSUHVV Chimpanzees in this community eat at least 10 different crop species, including papaya (Carica papayaFDVKHZ Anacar-dium occidentaleFRZSHDEHDQ(Vigna unguiculata), baobab (Adansonia digitata),mango (Mangifera indica) and orange (Citrus sinensis&KLPSDQ]HHVDW&DLTXHQH&DGLTXHHDWWKH

MXLF\FDVKHZSVHXGRIUXLWKHUHDIWHUIUXLWDWQXPHURXVORFD -WLRQVWKURXJKRXWWKHLUKRPHUDQJH7KHQXWLVQHYHUFRQVXPHG probably because it is enclosed by a potent skin irritant (Hock-LQJVDQG6RXVDLQSUHVV7KHVNLQRIWKHFDVKHZIUXLWLVIUDJLOH

making it less suitable than other fruits for transport and retail. As a result the fruits are rarely sold, and it is acceptable to take fruit from a farm for personal consumption if the nut is left. )DUPHUVUHSRUWWKDWFKLPSDQ]HHVVRPHWLPHVGDPDJHFDVKHZ trees by snapping branches to obtain the fruits more easily, EXWDOVRSRLQWWRDEHQH¿WRIFKLPSDQ]HHUDLGLQJDVFKLPSDQ -zees leave the nuts in manageable piles thereby making nut collection easier (Hockings and Sousa in press).

:KLOH WKH OHYHO RI FRQÀLFW RYHU FDVKHZ WKH FRXQWU\¶V PDMRUFDVKFURSFXUUHQWO\DSSHDUVTXLWHORZLQ&DLTXHQHDQG &DGLTXHGXHWRGLIIHUHQWLDOXVHRIFDVKHZSODQWVE\KXPDQV and chimpanzees (Hockings and Sousa in press), the raiding RIRWKHUFURSVVXFKDVRUDQJHVLQSDUWVRI&13DUHNQRZQ to have resulted in retaliatory killings of chimpanzees by farmers.

Overlapping forest resource use

/RFDOSHRSOHLQ&13XVHDZLGHUDQJHRIIRUHVWUHVRXUFHV for construction, medicinal and subsistence purposes (see )UD]mR0RUHLUD>@IRUDGHWDLOHGUHYLHZRIUHVRXUFHXVH E\ 1DOX SHRSOH$OWKRXJK LW LV WRR HDUO\ WR SUHFLVHO\ FDWD -ORJXHWKHIHHGLQJEHKDYLRUVRIFKLPSDQ]HHVLQ&13ZHPHQ -WLRQEHORZVRPHSURPLQHQWZLOGIRRGVWKDWERWKFKLPSDQ]HHV DQGORFDOSHRSOHXVHLQ&DLTXHQHDQG&DGLTXH

7KHUHDUHWKUHHVSHFLHVRISDOPWUHHLQWKHFKLPSDQ]HHV¶ NQRZQ UDQJH QDPHO\Elaeis guineensis (oil palm), Boras-sus aethiopum (African fan palm) and Phoenix reclinata

ZLOGGDWHSDOP$VHOVHZKHUHLQ:HVW$IULFDIRUH[DPSOH LQ*XLQHD+XPOHDQG0DWVX]DZDRLOSDOPVDUHVFDW -tered on the edges of the forest (see Sousa et al. 2011) and local people harvest the fruits mainly to produce oil. Although FKLPSDQ]HHVHDWWKHIUXLWSLWKDQGÀRZHU6RXVDet al. 2011), the abundance of oil palms and their distribution on the edges of forests means that there is very little competition felt by WKHYLOODJHUV7KH$IULFDQIDQSDOPLVSURWHFWHGDQGLWVXVH by local people for construction materials is restricted but FRPPRQSODFH7KHSURGXFWLRQRIDOFRKROIURPWKLVVSHFLHVLV forbidden as it ultimately kills the tree, but some local people FRQWLQXH WR XVH LW IRU WKLV SXUSRVH 7HPXGR DQG 6FKLHIHU (2003) suggest that because of this, the palm has almost com-pletely disappeared from the Cantanhez area. Chimpanzees DW&DLTXHQH&DGLTXHHDWWKHIUXLWVRIWKLVSDOPWKHIUXLWVDUH DURXQGJHDFKDQGKDYHDODUJHDQG¿EURXVSXOSDOWKRXJK LWVLPSRUWDQFHLQWKHLUGLHWLVXQNQRZQ7KHZLOGGDWHSDOP LVIRXQGH[WHQVLYHO\LQZHWWHUDUHDVERUGHULQJWKHPDQJURYHV $OWKRXJKKXPDQXVHRIWKLVSDOPDSSHDUVORZFKLPSDQ]HHV

FRQVXPHWKHSLWKDQGGLVFDUGGLVWLQFWLYHZDGJHV&RQVXPS -WLRQRIWKHIUXLWKDVQRW\HWEHHQFRQ¿UPHGEXWLWLVVHDVRQDOO\ LPSRUWDQWIRUFKLPSDQ]HHVOLYLQJLQDIRUHVWIDUPPDWUL[DW %XOLQGL8JDQGDZKHUHLWVFRQVXPSWLRQE\FKLPSDQ]HHVLV QHJDWLYHO\UHODWHGWRWKHLUFURSIHHGLQJ0F/HQQDQ

2WKHU FKLPSDQ]HH IRRG VSHFLHV LGHQWL¿HG LQFOXGH WKH fruits of Parinari excelsa and Dialium guineense ZKLFK

DUH HDWHQ LQIUHTXHQWO\ E\ ORFDO SHRSOH FKLOGUHQ SLFN WKH IUXLWV DW WKH HGJHV RI IRUHVWV DQG DORQJ URDGV VHH )LJ although the timber is used in construction. Chimpanzees at

Figure 3.$QDGXOWPDOHFKLPSDQ]HHLQ&DLTXHQH&DGLTXHFURVVLQJDURDGWKDW

62 &DLTXHQH&DGLTXHIUHTXHQWO\HQWHUFDVKHZSODQWDWLRQVWRHDW IUXLWVIURPZLOGVKDGHWUHHVVXFKDVParkia biglobosa. Chim-panzees in this area also approach human settlements to raid EHHKLYHVDQGDUHUHSRUWHGWRFRPSHWHZLWKORFDOSHRSOHIRU DFFHVVWRZDWHUZHOOVLQWKHGU\VHDVRQ6RXVDXQSXEOLVKHG GDWD 7KHUH LV D QHHG IRU GHWDLOHG HFRORJLFDO DQG EHKDY -ioral investigations into human and chimpanzee plant con-VXPSWLRQ DQG H[WUDFWLRQ UDWHV LQ &13 DQG PRUH ZLGHO\ LQ *XLQHD%LVVDX,WLVLPSRUWDQWWRH[DPLQHZKHWKHUDQ\ZLOG IRRGVDUHH[SORLWHGE\ORFDOSHRSOHIRUFRPPHUFLDOUHDVRQV DVRFFXUVIRUH[DPSOHDW)RQJROLLQ6HQHJDO3UXHW] IRXQGWKDWQDWXUDOO\RFFXUULQJSODQWVSHFLHVZHUHHDWHQE\ ERWKKXPDQVDQGFKLPSDQ]HHVLQWKH7RPERURQNRWRUHJLRQ LQ6HQHJDO7KHIUXLWIURPWKHIRUHVWOLDQDSaba senegalensis

LVDFULWLFDOIRRGVRXUFHIRUFKLPSDQ]HHVDW)RQJROLLQWKHGU\ season, but it also serves as a cash crop for humans during WLPHVRIKDUGVKLS6XFKLQIRUPDWLRQZLOOKHOSWRJXLGHHIIHF -WLYHPDQDJHPHQWLQ&13LQDQHIIRUWWRHQVXUHWKDWXQVXVWDLQ -DEOHKDUYHVWLQJRIZLOGIUXLWVE\KXPDQVGRHVQRWUHGXFHZLOG IUXLWDYDLODELOLW\WRVXFKDQH[WHQWWKDWFKLPSDQ]HHVZLOOEH forced to seek alternatives, perhaps increasing consumption RIFXOWLYDWHGFURSV/LNHZLVHLQIRUPDWLRQRQWKHHFRQRPLF LPSRUWDQFHRIZLOGIRRGVWRORFDOKXPDQVFDQEHLQFRUSRUDWHG into sustainable management strategies.

Conclusions

)RUWKHPRVWSDUWFKLPSDQ]HHVLQKDELWLQJODUJHSURWHFWHG DUHDVDUHOHVVOLNHO\WRLQWHUDFWZLWKSHRSOHDQGFRPSHWHRYHU UHVRXUFHV²FURSV DUH JHQHUDOO\ QRW DYDLODEOH LQ SURWHFWHG areas and the chimpanzees’ sizeable home ranges provide VXI¿FLHQWZLOGIRRG+RZHYHULWLVHYLGHQWWKDWFKLPSDQ]HHV LQ&DQWDQKH]1DWLRQDO3DUNDQGRWKHUSDUWVRI*XLQHD%LVVDX are being forced to adapt to human encroachment and use of WKHIRUHVW$QLQHYLWDEOHFRQVHTXHQFHLVDFRQWLQXLQJULVHLQ KXPDQ±FKLPSDQ]HHLQWHUDFWLRQVZKLFKKDYHWKHSRWHQWLDOWR JURZLQFUHDVLQJO\QHJDWLYHLQFKDUDFWHUHVSHFLDOO\DVKXPDQ

SRSXODWLRQVLQFUHDVHDQGIXUWKHUSUHVVXUHLVH[HUWHGRQWKHODQG &RQÀLFWPLWLJDWLRQVWUDWHJLHVWKDWWDUJHWSUREOHPDWLFZLOGOLIH behaviors such as crop-raiding are particularly complicated WR HVWDEOLVK IRU FRJQLWLYHO\ FRPSOH[ VSHFLHV DQG UHTXLUH D JRRGXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHVSHFLHV¶EHKDYLRU:KHQVSHFLHV have protected status, theoretically problem animals should only be deterred, translocated or tolerated, hence proactive PDQDJHPHQWLVUHTXLUHG&RQWLQXLQJUHVHDUFKWRXQGHUVWDQG WKHVH FRPSOH[ LQWHUDFWLRQV DQG FKLPSDQ]HH EHKDYLRU ZLOO JXLGHIXWXUHODQGXVHSODQVIRUH[DPSOHWKURXJKUHVWULFWLYH SODQWLQJRIDWWUDFWLYHDQGKLJKFRQÀLFWFURSVLQWKHQDWLRQDO SDUNVHH+RFNLQJVDQG0F/HQQDQXQGHUUHYLHZ

&KLPSDQ]HHVLQ&DLTXHQH&DGLTXHRFFXUDWDGHQVLW\RI DSSUR[LPDWHO\LQGLYLGXDOVNP2FODVVL¿HGDVKLJKGHQVLW\E\

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chimpanzee populations can persist in anthropogenic land-scapes provided they are not persecuted through hunting or UHWDOLDWRU\ NLOOLQJV 3UXHW]et al. 'XYDOO +RFN -ings et al.,QDJUHHPHQWZLWK0F/HQQDQ

WKLVHQIRUFHVWKHFRQVHUYDWLRQSRWHQWLDORIVXFKKDELWDWV)XU -WKHUPRUHFKLPSDQ]HHVDUHDEOHWRPRYHEHWZHHQIRUHVWIUDJ -ments and the communities do not appear overly isolated in FHQWUDO&DQWDQKH]:HKDYH\HWWRXQGHUVWDQGDWZKDWSRLQW habitat isolation and degradation make chimpanzees unable to disperse, but the prospects for the long-term viability of FKLPSDQ]HHV LQ &13 ZLOO EH JUHDWO\ LPSURYHG LI GLVSHUVDO RSSRUWXQLWLHV DUH PDLQWDLQHG EHWZHHQ PDMRU IRUHVWV ,PPL -gration into isolated communities that inhabit forest-farm matrices appears problematic for some populations of chim-SDQ]HHV$W%RVVRXLQ*XLQHDIRUH[DPSOHWKHUHKDVEHHQQR female immigration into the community since research began \HDUV DJR 6XJL\DPD 6SHFLDO HIIRUWV VKRXOG EH made to preserve key forested areas and ensure that connect-ing areas do not become impassable through the presence of GHQVHO\SRSXODWHGYLOODJHVODUJHFDVKHZSODQWDWLRQVRUZLGH busy roads.

,Q &13 DQ DSSURDFK WR FRQVHUYDWLRQ WKDW UHOLHV H[FOX -VLYHO\RQWKHH[FOXVLRQRIORFDOSHRSOHLVRXWRIWKHTXHVWLRQ 7KHEHQH¿WVWRORFDOFRPPXQLWLHVOLYLQJDORQJVLGHSRWHQWLDOO\ SUREOHPDWLF ZLOGOLIH VXFK DV FKLPSDQ]HHV PXVW WKHUHIRUH VXUSDVV WKH FRVWV HYHQ ZLWKLQ WKH ERUGHUV RI RI¿FLDOO\ SUR -tected national parks (Hill et al. 2002). In face of burgeon-LQJKXPDQSRSXODWLRQVDUHDVSURWHFWHGIRUZLOGOLIHDQGHFR -V\VWHPIXQFWLRQLQJQHHGWRFRQVLGHUKXPDQZHOIDUHDQGWKH UHVXOWLVDVKLIWLQIDYRURISURWHFWHGDUHDVWKDWDOORZIRUORFDO UHVRXUFHXVHZLWKPDQ\LQLWLDWLYHVDLPLQJWROLQNSURWHFWHG DUHDVWRORFDOVRFLRHFRQRPLFGHYHORSPHQW1DXJKWRQ7UHYHV

Humans and Chimpanzees in Guinea-Bissau

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Managing protected areas in developing countries

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the need for conservation of some of the most important

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their shared environments.

Acknowledgments

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for their invaluable help and the villagers for their continuing

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%DUDQ(DQG37RXVArtisanal Fishing, Sustainable Development and Co-management of Resources: Analy-sis of a Successful Project in West Africa. ,8&1*ODQG

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