Landscape changes decrease genetic diversity in the Pallas’ long-tongued bat

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Research Letters

Landscape changes decrease genetic diversity in the Pallas’

long-tongued bat

Rosane G. Collevatti

^a,∗

, Luciana C. Vitorino

^b

, Thiago B. Vieira

^c

, Monik Oprea

^a

, Mariana P.C. Telles

^a,d

aLaboratóriodeGenética&Biodiversidade,InstitutodeCiênciasBiológicas,UniversidadeFederaldeGoiás,CEP74001-970,Goiânia,Goiás,Brazil

bDepartamentodeBiodiversidadeeConservac¸ão,InstitutoFederalGoianocampusRioVerde,Cx.P.66,75901-970,RioVerde,Goiás,Brazil

cUniversidadeFederaldoPará,CampusAltamira,Altamira,Pará,Brazil

dEscoladeCiênciasAgráriaseBiológicas,PontifíciaUniversidadeCatólicadeGoiás,CEP74605-010,Goiânia,Goiás,Brazil

h i g h l i g h t s

•Thereplacementofnaturalvegeta- tiontoagriculture,pasturesorurban matricesdecreasedgeneticdiversity inthePalla’slong-tonguedbat.

•Pallas’slong-tonguedbathadaquasi- stable range distribution since the lastGlacialMaximum.

•TheQuaternaryclimatechangeshad nosigniﬁcanteffectsonthegenetic diversityofthePalla’slong-tongued

•bat.Populations of the Palla’s long-

tongued bat was differentiated by isolation-by-distance, but not by environment.

•Our ﬁndings point to the main- tenance of large areas of natural vegetationtoconservegeneticdiver- sityinthePalla’slong-tonguedbat.

g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

a r t i c l e i n f o

Articlehistory:

Received5March2020 Accepted26June2020 Availableonline7August2020

Keywords:

Cerrado Connectivity

Ecologicalnichemodeling Habitatfragmentation Quaternaryclimatechanges Resistancesurface

a b s t r a c t

Specieswithhighmobilitymayhavelowgeneticdifferentiationamongpopulationsduetohistorical long-distancedispersal,butrecentstudiesshowthatbatdispersalmaybeaffectedbyhabitatlossand fragmentation.Here,weanalyzetheeffectsoflandscapecontemporarychangesanddynamicsinpale- odistributionduringtheQuaternaryongeneticdiversityanddifferentiationinthePallas’long-tongued bat,Glossophagasoricina.Wesampled18populationsinlandscapeswithdifferentlandcover,andused ninemicrosatellitelociandthesequenceofafragmentofthemitochondrialgenecytochromeb(CYB)to obtaingeneticdata.Weperformedecologicalnichemodellingandusedgenerallinearmixedmodelsand optimizationofmultipleresistancesurfacestoanalyzehowlandscapestructureandclimaticsuitability affectgeneticdiversityanddifferentiation.Ourresultsshowthattheconversionofnaturalvegetation, suchasforestsandsavannas,toagriculture,pasturesorurbanmatrices(unsuitablehabitats)decreases geneticdiversityandincreasesinbreeding,buthasnoeffectongeneticdifferentiationamongpopula- tions,thatwaslikelyaffectedbyspatialdistance.Ourﬁndingspointtotheimportanceofmaintenanceof largeareasofnaturalvegetationremnantstoconservegeneticdiversityofG.soricina,animportantbat pollinatorintheNeotropics.

).

∗ Correspondingauthor.

E-mailaddress:rosanegc68@hotmail.com(R.G.Collevatti).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecon.2020.06.006

creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

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170 R.G.Collevattietal./PerspectivesinEcologyandConservation18(2020)169–177 Introduction

Animalmobilityanddispersalmaybeaffectedbyhabitatloss andfragmentation(e.g.Umetsuetal.,2008;Puttkeretal.,2011), andthere isevidence ofdeleterious effectsof habitatfragmen- tationongeneticvariabilityanddifferentiationoncommonand widespreadvertebratespecieswithhighmobility(Johanssonetal., 2007;Delaneyetal.,2010;Levyetal.,2019).Landscapestructure, suchasmatrixqualityanddistanceamonghabitats,mayisolate populations,limitingtheirdispersal(Umetsuetal.,2008;Boscolo andMetzger,2011)andthus,populationconnectivityandgenetic diversity(e.g.Dixoetal.,2009;Balkenholetal.,2013;Jacksonand Fahrig,2016).

Moreover,climatechangesduringtheQuaternarymightalso haveaffectedspeciesgeneticdiversityduetothecyclesofpopu- lationexpansionandcontraction(Hewitt,2000).Populationrange contractionmaydecreaseeffectivepopulationsize,leadingtoloss ofgeneticdiversityduetogeneticdrift.Shiftsinspeciesgeographi- caldistributionsduetotheQuaternaryclimatechangeshaveplayed animportantroleinshapingthegeneticdiversityofanimalspecies intheCerradobiome(e.g.Mirandaetal.,2019).Thus,disentan- glingcontemporaryandhistoricalprocessesleadingtopopulation effectivesizereductionandlossofgeneticdiversityisimportant topredictspeciesresponsetochangesinlandscapeintheAnthro- pocene.

Batspeciesaredifferentiallyaffectedbyhabitatfragmentation (e.g. Gorresen and Willig, 2004; Meyer et al., 2009; Centeno- Cuadros et al., 2017). Some bats avoid ﬂying over open areas (Henryetal.,2007),watercourses(Albrechtetal.,2007),androads (Zurcheretal.,2010).Thus,fragmentationhasapotentialtoiso- latebatpopulationsandreducegeneticconnectivity(Rossiteretal., 2000)andcolonizationofnewareas(KerthandPetit,2005;Russell etal.,2005).Inadditiontothebarriersimposedbythelandscape, reproductivebehaviorandhistoricalpatternsofcolonizationmay alsoberesponsibleforrestrictedgeneﬂow(Wilmeretal.,1999).

Althoughhighlymobile,batsmayshowdifferentdispersalpatterns andbreedingsystems,includingvariationinroostingecology,and socialstructures(McCrackenandWilkinson,2000),thatmayaffect geneticstructure(e.g.Flandersetal.,2016).Indeed,severalstud- ieshaveshownsigniﬁcantpopulationsubstructureinbatspecies atdifferentspatialscales(e.g.Biollazetal.,2010;Rippergeretal., 2013;Flandersetal.,2016).

Glossophagasoricina(Pallas1766)(Glossophaginae),thePallas’

long-tonguedbat,isoneofthemostcommonandwidespreadnec- tarivorousbatsintheNeotropics(Reisetal.,2005),andalsofeeds oninsectsandfruits(Willigetal.,1993),andusesalargevariety ofroosts(caves,trees,human-madestructures).Adultmalesmay defendharemsandjuvenilesandbothmalesandfemalesdisperse fromtheirnatalcolony(Pink,1996).Becauseofitsgeographicaldis- tributionandnaturalhistory,aloweffectofhabitatfragmentation onG.soricinageneticdiversitymaybeexpectedorevennoeffectat all.However,morethanhalfoftheCerradobiomehasbeenrapidly transformedintopasturesandcrops(Silvaetal.,2006),affecting speciesgeneticdiversityandinbreeding(e.g.Arrudaetal.,2017) jeopardizingspecieslong-termconservation.

Here,weaddresstheeffectsofcontemporarychangesinland- scapestructureand paleodistributionduringtheQuaternaryon geneticdiversityandpopulationdifferentiationinG.soricinainthe Cerradobiome.Weusedamultiscalespatialapproachtospecif- icallytestwhetherhabitatamount(forestsandsavanna),matrix (unsuitableland covers)typeand past climatechanges explain thecurrentgeneticdiversityand differentiationamongpopula- tions.Thegeneticdatawereobtainedfromnuclearbiparentally inheritedmicrosatelliteloci and thematernally inheritedmito- chondrialcytochromeBgene(CYB).Thus,usingdatafrommarkers withdifferentinheritance and evolutionaryrates ourdatamay

trackdifferencesindispersalbetweenmaleandfemalebatsand alsodifferencesintimeofresponsetoQuaternaryclimatechanges andcurrentlandscapechanges.Weexpecttoﬁndsigniﬁcantrela- tionshipsbetweenlandscapestructureandgeneticdiversityand differentiationformicrosatelliteloci,butnotforCYB.Conversely, weexpectthatCYBgeneticparameterswillbebetterexplained byclimaticchangesandhistoricaleffectivepopulationsizedueto lowermutationrate.

Materialsandmethods

Populationsandtissuessampling

We sampled 18 populations (229 individuals) of G. soricina throughout theBrazilianCerrado biome(Fig.1, TableS1). Pop- ulations were selected in landscapes with different land use composition, suchas habitat (savanna and forest)amount and matrix(unsuitablelandcover)type.Batswerecapturedwithmist netsinstalledatgroundlevelandwesampledapproximately3mm ofthewingmembrane(seedetailsinSupplementaryFileS1).

Geneticdata

Forgeneticdata,DNAwasextractedandindividualsweregeno- typedusingnine microsatelliteloci previouslydeveloped forG.

soricina(Opreaetal.,2012).Forsequencing,weusedtheprimers describedbyIrwinetal.(1991)toamplifya1140bpfragmentof thecytochrome-bmitochondrialgene(CYB).Detailsoftheproto- colsforgenotypingandsequencingaredescribedinSupplementary FileS1.

To obtain genetic parameters for microsatellite loci we estimated genetic diversity (heterozygosity expected under Hardy–Weinbergequilibrium, He),inbreedingcoefﬁcient(f)and allelicrichnessforeachpopulation.Forpopulationgeneticdiffer- entiationweestimatedWright’sF_ST(Wright,1951),G’_ST (Hedrick, 2005)andJost’sD(Jost,2008)usingPopGenReportpackage(Gruber andAdamack,2019)implementedinR3.6.1.(RCoreteam,2019).

WeusedaBayesianclusteringmethodimplementedinthesoft- wareStructure2.3.4(Pritchardetal.,2000),toidentifygenetically homogeneousgroupswithinoursamples.We estimateda pos- terioriprobabilityofK(numberofgroups)rangingfrom1to18 (correspondingtoeachsampledlocality).

ForCYB,weestimatednucleotide(␲)andhaplotype(h)diversity foreachpopulation,andpopulationdifferentiation(F_ST)usingthe softwareArlequin3.11(Excofﬁeretal.,2005).Populationstructure wasalsoassessedusingBayesianclusteringimplementedinthe softwareBAPSv6.0(Coranderetal.,2008)withanupperlimitofK

=18.

Tounderstandthegeographicaldistributionandphylogenetic relationshipsamongmtDNAhaplotypes,weinferredahaplotype networkusingthesoftwareNETWORK4.6.1.6(Forsteretal.,2004).

DetailsofgeneticanalysesareprovidedinSupplementaryFileS1.

Effectivepopulationsizeandconnectivity

Becausegeneticdiversitymaybeaneffectofchangesineffective populationsizeweestimatedhistoricalandcontemporaryeffec- tivepopulationsizes(Ne).Contemporary Newascalculated for microsatellitelociforeachpopulationwithNeEstimatorv.2.01 (Doetal.,2014)usingthemolecularcoancestrymethod(Nomura, 2008)toverifytheeffectofpopulationsizeongeneticparameters.

WeestimatedhistoricalNeusingcoalescentanalysisforboth microsatellitelociandCYB.Weestimatedthemutationparame- tertheta()andthenumberofimmigrantspergenerationamong

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Fig. 1.Geographical distribution of the 18 samples of Glossophagasoricina in the Brazilian Cerrado and sampling design for landscapeanalysis. Two circular buffersdelimited eachpopulation.Theinner bufferhas2kmradius(red line)andtheouter(blackline)has5kmradius.Landusecategoriesare inlegends.

Other refers to mixing categories not detectableat the map scale. Landuse map was obtained from the MMA (Brazilian Ministry ofEnvironment) database http://mapas.mma.gov.br/mapas/aplic/probio/datadownload.htm.

allpopulationpairsusingLamarc2.1.10software(Kuhner,2006).

DetailsaredescribedinSupplementaryFileS1.

Ecologicalnichemodeling

Weobtained13,069occurrencerecordsofG.soricinaacrossthe Neotropics(Fig.S1).Afterdataﬁltering,theremaining2353occur- rencerecords(TableS2)weremappedinagridofcellsof2.5×2.5 (longitude×latitude),encompassingtheNeotropics,togenerate thematrixofpresenceusedtocalibratetheENMs.

The climatic layers were represented by ﬁve bioclimatic variables:annualmeantemperature,meandiurnalrange,isother- mality,precipitationofwettestquarter,andprecipitationofdriest quarter,selectedbyfactorialanalysiswithVarimaxrotationfrom 19 bioclimatic variables obtained in the ecoClimate database (Lima-Ribeiro et al., 2015).Bioclimatic variables were obtained forpre-industrial(representingcurrentclimateconditions),mid- Holocene(6ka)andLastGlacialMaximum(LGM;21ka)fromﬁve Atmosphere-OceanGeneralCirculation Models(AOGCM) (Table S3).

Estimatesofthecurrentand pastpotentialdistributionofG.

soricinawereobtainedbymodelingitsecologicalnicheusingﬁve algorithms(TableS4).TheENMswerethenbuiltonthecurrentcli- maticscenarioandprojectedontotheclimaticconditionsduring boththemid-Holocene(6ka)andLGM(21ka).AllENMprocedures wererun in theintegrated computationalplatformBIOENSEM- BLES,whichprovidespredictionsbasedontheensembleapproach (Diniz-Filhoetal.,2009).

ForeachalgorithmandAOGCM,modelswerebuiltusing75%of occurrencesandtestedagainsttheremainingrecords(25%).Models withpoorperformancewereeliminated(TSS<0.7).Thefrequency ofpredictedpresencewasusedasameasureofconsensussuitabil- ityfrom50initialmodels.

Finally,thefullensemblewasobtainedforeach timeperiod usingthepredictiveperformances(TSS)tocomputea weighted meanofsuitabilities,fromwhichhistoricalrefugiaweremapped (i.e.allgridcellswithsuitabilityvalues≥0.5duringthethreetime periods).DetailsareprovidedinSupplementaryFileS1.

Landscapeandclimaticeffectsongeneticdiversity

Toanalyzetheeffectoflandscapestructureongeneticdiver- sitywequantiﬁedlandscapevariablesatnodelevel(Wagnerand Fortin,2013).Wedrewlandscape-buffersof2.0and5.0kmradius aroundeachsampledlocation(Fig.1)usinghigh-resolutionimages availableatthemapdatabaseoftheGeographicInformationSys- teminArcGisv.9.3(ESRI^®a).Wechosetheselandscape-buffersizes becauseofthehomerangeofG.soricina(e.g.Aguiaretal.,2014).

Ineachlandscape-bufferweclassiﬁedthelandcoverandcalcu- latedtheareaandthepercentageofeachlandcovertypeinside each buffer (Fig. 1, Table S5) using ArcGis v.9.3.We examined thecorrelation among land cover amounts and excludedthose withPearson’scorrelation≥

0.5

,toavoidcollinearity.Wekept percentageofnaturalvegetationremnants(forestsandsavanna), representinghabitatamount,andformatrixweusedmatrixtype

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172 R.G.Collevattietal./PerspectivesinEcologyandConservation18(2020)169–177

Fig.2. BayesianclusteringformicrosatellitelociandCYBof18GlossophagasoricinapopulationsinBrazilianCerrado.Theblackfulllinesindicatepossiblegeneticdiscontinuity betweenlocalitiesbasedonDelaunay’striangulationformicrosatellitelociandgreenforCYB.Differentcolorswereassignedforeachclusteraccordingtotheﬁgurelegend.

Thecirclesectionsrepresenttheclusterfrequencyineachsampledpopulation.SeeTableS1forpopulationcodeandlocality.LandusemapwasobtainedfromtheMMA (BrazilianMinistryofEnvironment)databasehttp://mapas.mma.gov.br/mapas/aplic/probio/datadownload.htm.

(pasture,agriculture,urbanarea,waterbody,miningandoutcrops andmixeduse).

WeusedGeneralizedLinearMixedModel(GLMM)toanalyze theeffectsoflandscapestructureandpaleodistributionongenetic parameters.Weusedasexplanatoryvariablesmatrixtypeandper- centageofnaturalvegetationremnants,suitabilityatpresentday derivedfromENMandclimaticstability.Wealsousedhistorical (basedoncoalescence)andcontemporary(basedoncoancestry) Neineachlocalityasexplanatoryvariables.

We built several models with combinations of explanatory variablesandanull model.Analyseswerecarriedoutusingthe MCMCglmmpackage(Haldﬁeld,2019)implementedinR3.6.1.(R Coreteam,2019).Toselectwhichmodelbestexplainstheobserved variationingeneticparametersamonglandscapeswecalculated AICcorrectedfor small samples(AICc)and AICci, i.e.the dif- ferencebetweeneach model(i)andthebestmodels(Burnham andAnderson,2002).DetailsareprovidedinSupplementaryFile S1.

Landscapeandclimaticeffectsongeneticdifferentiation

Toperformtheanalysisatthelinklevel(WagnerandFortin, 2013), weused ResistanceGApackage(Peterman,2018), imple- mented in R 3.6.1. to optimize multiple resistance surfaces simultaneously.Forgeneticdistancematrixweusedthegenetic differentiation among all pairs of populations (Tables S6–S9):

F_ST (forboth microsatellites and CYB), and G_ST’ and Jost’ D for microsatellites.Forresistancematrixweextractedthelandcover between all pairs of populations and converted land use in resistancesurface.We alsousedtheconsensusmap of ENMat present-dayfor resistancedue toclimate, and thegeographical distancematrixtoaccountforisolation-by-distance.Optimization wasperformedwiththefunctiongdistance/commuteDistance.To selectthemostlikelymodel,weusedAICci.

We also analyzed genetic discontinuity among populations usingtheDelaunaynetwork(LegendreandLegendre,1998)imple-

mented inthe softwareSAM v.4(Rangelet al.,2010), for both microsatellitesandCYB.DetailsareprovidedinSupplementaryFile S1.

Results

Geneticdiversityandpopulationdifferentiation

Populationshad similarlevelsof geneticdiversityand poly- morphism(TableS10)despitethedifferencesinsamplesize.The inbreedingcoefficientsweresignificantlydifferentfromzerofor mostpopulations(TableS10).Mostpairsofpopulationshadlow valuesofpairwiseF_ST(TableS6),pairwiseJost’sDandpairwiseG’_ST (TablesS7andS9);theonlyexceptionwaspopulation18,which showedhighandsignificantvaluesforallcomparisons.Detailsof resultsareprovidedinSupplementaryFileS1.

Bayesianclusteringbasedonmicrosatelliteloci showedthat threeclusters(K=3,Fig.S2,TableS11)weremostlikely.Clus- ter1(green,Fig.2)comprisedmostpopulations.Cluster2(yellow, Fig.2)comprisedmainlypopulation18.PopulationsfromSouth- eastBrazil(14and15,Fig.2)wereequallyassignedtoclusters1 and3.

Wefound171differentCYBhaplotypesforthe229individuals ofG.soricina(TableS12).Allpopulationsshowedhighhaplotype andnucleotidediversitiesandmosthaplotypeswereexclusiveto onepopulation(TablesS101,S12,Fig.S3).Haplotypesfrompop- ulation18(H158,Fig.S3),1(H01)and14(H117)werethemost differentiated and wereexclusive tothesepopulations (Fig. S3, TableS12).

PopulationsshowedhighpairwiseF_ST(TableS9).Bayesianclus- teringshowedanoptimalpartitionofK=3clusters(Fig.2,Table S13),butwithnocleargeographicalpattern.

Contemporaryand historical effective populationsizeswere lowforallpopulations(TableS10).Overall,thenumberofmigrants pergenerationwashigh(Nem>1.0)betweenallpairsofpopula- tions(TableS14)forbothmicrosatellitesandCYB.

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Fig.3. Mapsofconsensusofthe75modelsofthepotentialdistributionofGlossophagasoricina,basedonecologicalnichemodellingduringtheLGM(21ka),mid-Holocene (6ka),present-dayandthehistoricalclimaticrefugiumthroughtime(fromtheLGMtopresent-day).Reddotsarethe18populationssampled.

Ecologicalnichemodeling

Glossophagasoricinashowedaclearpreferenceforhotclimate acrosstheNeotropics(Fig.3)withhighfrequencyofoccurrencein savannas,seasonallydryandrainforestsoftheNeotropics.Such climatespacewasequallyavailableattheLGM,mid-Holoceneand presentday(Fig.3,Figs.S4,S5,TableS15),andthusENMspre- dictedonlyaslightdifferenceinG.soricinapotentialdistribution throughtime,withaslightlylargerrangesizeattheLGM(Fig.3, Fig.S5)comparedtoboththemid-Holoceneandpresent-day.In addition,awideregionacrosseastern,northeasternBrazil,towards central-westAmazoniaandnorthernSouthAmericaandwestern MesoAmericaprobablyactedashistoricalrefugiamaintainingpop- ulationsofG.soricinaduringtheclimatechangesthroughoutthe lastglaciationcycle (Fig.3).ENMsalsoshoweda rangeshiftin geographicaldistributiontowardsthesoutheastBrazil,especially fromtheLGMtothemid-Holocene(Fig.3,Fig.S5).Fromthemid-

Holocenetopresent-day,ENMshowedquasi-stabilityinG.soricina geographicalrange(Fig.3,Fig.S5).SeedetailsinSupplementary FileS1.

Landscapeandclimaticeffectsongeneticdiversity

Overall,modelsincludingmatrixtypeexplainedbetterthevari- ationingeneticparametersformicrosatelliteloci(Figs.4A,S6A, TableS16)andCYB(Fig.4B,Fig.S6B,TableS16)atbothspatialscales.

Althoughmodelswitheffectivepopulationsize(Ne)andmatrix typehadsigniﬁcantcoefﬁcientsforkandh(TableS16),theywere lesslikelythanmodelscomprisingonlymatrixtype(Figs.4and S6).Modelsincludingclimaticsuitabilityorpercentageofnatural vegetationremnantswerelesslikelythanmodelswithmatrixtype (TableS16).

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174 R.G.Collevattietal./PerspectivesinEcologyandConservation18(2020)169–177

Fig.4.ModelaveragingresultsforeachgeneticparameterbasedonthegenotypingofmicrosatellitelociandsequencingofCYBfor18GlossophagasoricinainBrazilian Cerradofor2kmspatialscale.PanelsshowtherelativeimportanceofeachvariablebasedonwAICc(Akaike’sweightofevidence)andthemodelcoefﬁcients(␤)for(A) microsatelliteloci,(B)CYB.Errorbarrepresentsstandarderror(seeTableS16forpvalues).SeeFig.S6for5kmspatialscale.He,geneticdiversity;f,inbreedingcoefﬁcient;

AR,allelicrichness;k,numberofhaplotypes;h,haplotypediversity;␲,nucleotidediversity.

Landscapeandclimaticeffectsongeneticdifferentiation

Geneticdifferentiationamongpopulationswasnotexplainedby landscapeorclimaticresistancetoG.soricinadispersal(TableS17, Figs.S7–S10).ThenullmodelwasthebestmodelforbothCYBand microsatellites,howevergeographicdistancecouldnotberejected asafactorexplainingthevariationingeneticdifferentiationamong populationsformicrosatellites(TableS17).

We found discontinuity between pairs of populations, i.e.

higherF_STthanexpectedbythespatialdistancebetweenpairsof populations.Formicrosatellitelocipopulation18wasthemostdif- ferentiated.Wefoundevidencefordiscontinuitybetweenﬁvepairs ofpopulations:4–7,2–18,3–18,7–18,and9–18(Fig.2,TableS17).

ForCYB,population17wasthemostdivergent.Wefounddiscon- tinuitybetween4–6,5–17,6–17,7–17,12–17and16–17(Fig.2, TableS18).

Discussion

Contemporarychangesinlandscapeandgeneticdiversity

Our ﬁndings show that contemporary changes in landscape affectsgeneticdiversityinpopulationsofGlossophagasoricinafrom theCerrradobiome.Thereplacementofnaturalvegetation,suchas forestsandsavannas,toagriculture,pasturesorurbanareasmay decreasegeneticdiversityandincreaseinbreeding.Theinﬂuence occursatbothspatialscalesanalyzedhere(2and5kmbuffers).

The effects of scale on therelationships betweenlandscape structureandbatoccurrence,abundanceandpopulationgenetic structurehavebeenreportedpreviously(e.g.Gorresenetal.,2005;

Razgouretal.,2014).Thelackofscaleeffectinourstudymaybedue toG.soricina’sdispersalabilityanditsforagingandmatingbehav- ior.Thehomerangeofthespeciesislargerthan2km,andthe maximumﬂightdistancetrackedsofarwas3.8km(Aguiaretal., 2014).However,G.soricinamakescoloniesandharemsdefended byadultmales,whichmayconstraintdispersalandcausethehigh inbreedingobserved.In addition,thedispersalconstraindueto matingbehaviormayalsoisolatecoloniesofG.soricina,explain- ingtheeffectofmatrixtypeoninbreeding.Smallerbats,suchas G.soricina,maybemoreaffectedbylandscapechangesindepen- dentofthegeographicaldistribution.Forinstance,geneticdiversity andgeneﬂowinCarolliacastanea,asmallwidelydistributedbat species,arenegativelyaffectedbylossofhabitat(forests)whereas thelargerArtibeusjamaicencisisnotaffectedbypercentageofforest andmatrix(Clearyetal.,2017).Likewise,Carolliaperspicillatashow lossofgeneticdiversityduetohabitatfragmentation,contrasting toUrodermabilobatum,alargermorevagilespecies(Meyeretal., 2009).

Matingbehaviorandphilopatrymayaffectpopulationstructure inbatsandincreaserelatednesswithinpopulationsandinbreeding (Biollazetal.,2010;Rippergeretal.,2013;Flandersetal.,2016).

Our ﬁndings show higher geneticdifferentiation for mitochon- drialCYBthanfornuclearmicrosatellites,whichmaybeevidence of female philopatry, i.e., malesdisperse more frequently than

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females.However,itisimportanttonotethatthemitochondrial genome(mtDNA)ismaternallyinheritedwithoutrecombination andtheeffectivepopulationsizeofmtDNAissmallerthanthatof thenucleargenome,therebyleadingtoahigherrateofalleleﬁxa- tionbygeneticdriftformtDNAthanfornuclearDNA(Birkyetal., 1983).Effectivepopulationsizemaybeoneofthemostimpor- tantfactorsinﬂuencingratesofmolecularevolution(Lanfearetal., 2014).Thus,differencesbetweenmicrosatellitelociandCYBmay beduetodifferencesindispersalbehaviorbutalsoinevolution- aryrates.Moreover,geneticdifferentiationatmicrosatelliteloci andCYBshoweddifferentresponsestogeographicaldistance.CYB showednoeffectofspatialdistancelikelybecausemalesdisperse morefrequentlythanfemales.

Herewefoundnoeffectoflandcoveringeneticdifferentiation atboth CYBand microsatelliteloci. However,wefounddiscon- tinuityin severalpairsofpopulations,meaningthatsomepairs ofpopulationshavehigherF_ST thanexpectedbytheirgeograph- icaldistance.Thegeneticdiscontinuitymaybeduetotherecent fragmentationandanthropogenicdisturbancebecausepopulations showinggeneticdiscontinuityformicrosatellitelociareimbedded inurbanareas,agricultureorpasturethatmayaffectthedispersal ofG.soricinaamonglocalities,restrictinggeneﬂowandincreasing inbreeding.Forinstance,population18iswithinaconservation unit,whichhaspristinevegetationandawidevariation infood resources,surroundedbyextensiveagricultureareas(mainlysoy- beanandcorn).Theregionpresentshighnumberofwell-preserved caves,whichareusedasroostsbythespecies.Allthesecharacteris- ticsmayfavorbatsstayingwithintheconservationunit,decreasing theconnectivityofthispopulation(18)evenwithpopulationsat closedistance,suchaspopulations2,3and9(seeFig.2),leadingto ageneticboundary.Infact,largerandmorestablecavesandsur- roundedbynaturalvegetationcanhavemorebatspeciesandlarger populations(e.g.Barrosetal.,2020).Population9isalsowithina conservationunit,however,withextensiveareasofsavannaand nocaves,whichmayfavorG.soricinadispersal,decreasingdiscon- tinuity.Population17issurroundedbycropsandminingindustry, whichmayisolatetheG.soricinapopulation.

Inaddition,CYBshoweddifferentpatternsofdiscontinuityand Bayesianclusteringcomparedtomicrosatelliteloci.Forinstance, population18showedhighconnectivitywithotherpopulations andnogeneticdiscontinuityforCYB.Ontheotherhand,popula- tion17hadhighdifferentiationanddiscontinuityforCYB,butnot formicrosatellites.Thisresultmaybeduetodifferentdispersal patternbetweenmalesandfemalesorduetodifferencesinevolu- tionaryrates.Microsatellitesmayshowsignalsofcurrentlandscape changeswhileCYBmayshowtheeffectsofhistoricalconnectivity andpaleodistribution(seebelow).Indeed,batsmayshowmale- biaseddispersalthatcanbehighlyaffectedbylandscapechanges andhabitatloss,leadingtolossofgeneticdiversity(Halczoketal., 2018).

Despite the high level of fragmentation and anthropogenic disturbances in the Brazilian Cerrado, the studied populations ofG.soricinapresented relativelyhighgeneticdiversity atboth microsatellitelociandCYB,similartothelevelsofotherPhyllosto- midaebatssuchasLophostomasilviculum(He=0.490;Dechmann etal.,2002),Carolliabrevicauda(Herangingfrom0.430to0.940;

Bardelebenetal.,2007)andDermanurawatsoni(hrangingfrom 0.902to0.991,andnumberofhaplotypesrangingfrom11to21;

Rippergeretal.,2013).Ourresultsalsoshowlowbutsigniﬁcantdif- ferentiationformicrosatelliteloci(F_ST =0.056,P<0.0001)among populationsofG.soricinaintheBrazilianCerrado,similartoother bat species,such asPlecotus auritus(F_ST ranging from0.011to 0.026;BurlandandWilmer,2001)andNyctalusazoreum(F_STrang- ingfrom0.009to0.036;Salgueiroetal.,2008;).Thelowgenetic differentiationamongpopulationsmaybetheoutcomeofhistorical long-distancedispersal.Infact,Bayesianclusteringshowedthree

geneticgroupsindicatingweakgeneticstructureamongsiteswith highlevelsofgeneﬂow.Theonlyexceptionwaspopulation18, whichshowedhighandsigniﬁcantvaluesofpairwiseF_ST forall comparisons.

Paleodistributiondynamicsaffectedgeneticboundariesbetween populations

Wefoundnoevidencethatpaleodistributionchangesduring theQuaternarysignificantlyaffectedthegeneticparametersana- lyzed.Thelackofsignificanteffectmaybeduetothequasistability ofG.soricina’sgeographicalrangesincetheLGM.Infact,ourfind- ingsshowaslightlylargergeographicalrangeduringtheLGMthan atthemid-Holoceneorpresent-day,showingthatG.soricinamay haveexpanded itsdistributionduringtheglacialperiodsof the Quaternary,whenseasonally dryforestsandopenedvegetation expandedtheirdistributions(Penningtonetal.,2000).

Nevertheless, thelarge areasof high suitabilitythrough the Quaternarymayhave beenhistoricalclimaticrefugia,maintain- ing populationsthroughtime. The historical refugiaprovided a sourceofmigrantstocolonizenewsuitableareaswhilethespecies wastrackingclimaticniche.ENMshowedthatseveralpopulations ofG.soricina inCentral Brazilwereoutside theclimaticrefugia (seeFig.3)fromtheLGMtopresent-day,explainingthegenetic discontinuityat CYB betweensome populations,suchas popu- lation17.Ontheotherhand,somepopulationswereconnected inthepast,suchaspopulation18,andcontemporarylandscape changes mayhave isolated populations leadingto low connectivity and genetic discontinuityat microsatelliteloci. Thus, the geneticboundariesamongpopulationsmaybedue toboth, the paleodistributiondynamicsintheQuaternary,andthecontempo- rarylandscapechanges.

Concludingremarks

Our ﬁndingsshowlossofgeneticdiversityinpopulationsof G.soricinaintheBrazilianCerradoduetocontemporarychanges in landscape,despitethehighdispersal ability.Our resultsalso showisolationofpopulationssurroundedbypasture,agriculture orurbanarea, increasinginbreeding.Lessdistanceamongnatu- ralvegetationremnantsmayalsoincreasepopulationconnectivity, decreasinggeneticdifferentiation.Althoughpaleodistributiondid notexplainvariationingeneticdiversityanddifferentiationamong populations,historicalrefugiamayexplainthepatternsofgenetic boundariesbetweenpairsofpopulations.

Ourﬁndingshighlighttheeffectsofhabitatlossandspatialdis- tanceamongremnantsingeneticdiversityanddifferentiationof highlymobileandwidelydistributedspecies,suchasthePallas’

long-tonguedbat,highlightingtheharmfuleffectsofhabitatlossfor batspeciesandgeneticdiversity(e.g.Meyeretal.,2009;Muylaert etal.,2016;Clearyetal.,2017)Ecologicalinteractionsmayalsobe affectedinthewayfragmentationaffectsG.soricinasinceecolog- icalprocesses,suchaspollinationandseeddispersalmayalsobe affected,modifyingecosystemdynamicsandregeneration.

Moreover,ourresultssuggestthat conservationplanningfor G.soricinamaybebasedonthelocalpatternoflandscapestruc- ture,protectingnaturalvegetationremnantstoincreasepopulation geneticdiversityandconnectivity.

Authorcontributions

RGCandMOconceivedthework.RGCandMPCTfunded the work.MOobtainedthedata.RGC,LCVandTBVcarriedoutanaly- ses.RGCwrotetheoriginaldraftandallauthorsapprovedtheﬁnal version.

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176 R.G.Collevattietal./PerspectivesinEcologyandConservation18(2020)169–177 DNAsequences

CYBsequencedataareavailableatGenBank(https://www.ncbi.

nlm.nih.gov/),accessnumberfromMN719187toMN719369.

Conﬂictofintereststatement

Theauthorsdeclare thatthe researchwasconductedin the absenceofanycommercialorﬁnancialrelationshipsthatcouldbe construedasapotentialconﬂictofinterest.

Acknowledgments

ThisworkwassupportedbytheprojectCNPq/FAPEG/AUXPESQ CH007/2009andCAPES/PROCAD(projectno.88881.068425/2014- 01).M.Oprea receivedaCAPESfellowship.WethankACPavan, LSalles,LGeise,LAguiar,MCNascimento,KCFaria,WUieda,A Pedrozo,TBVieiraandPMendesfortissuesamples,andMatheus SLima-Ribeiroforhelpingwithecologicalnichemodelling.RGC andMPCThavebeencontinuouslysupportedbyCNPqandCAPES grants and fellowships,which we gratefully acknowledge. The authorizationfor sampling was granted by the Brazilian Insti- tute for Environment (ICMBio/MMA number 20982-1). Current researchisfundedbytheNationalInstituteforScienceandTech- nology(INCT)inEcology,EvolutionandBiodiversityConservation (MCTIC/CNPq/FAPEGprojectno.465610/2014-5).

AppendixA. Supplementarydata

Supplementarymaterialrelated tothis article canbefound, in the online version, at doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecon.

2020.06.006.

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