Domestic water use in a rural village
in M inas Gerais, Brazil, with an emphasis
on spatial patterns, sharing of water,
and factors in water use
Utilizaç ão d o mé stic a d e ág ua e m c o munid ad e
rural d e Minas G e rais, Brasil e sua re laç ão c o m
fato re s só c io -e c o nô mic o s, amb ie ntais, e e sp ac iais
1 Departam en to de En ferm agem M atern o In fan til e Saú d e Pú blica, Escola d e En ferm agem , Un iversid ad e Fed eral d e M in as Gerais. Av. Alfred o Balen a 190, Belo Horiz on te, M G 30130-100, Brasil.
2 Departm en t of Epidem iology an d Biostatistics, Un iversity of Californ ia Med ical Cen ter, 94143, San Fran cisco, Californ ia, U SA.
An d réa Gaz z in elli 1
M árcia Ch ristin a C. Sou z a 1
Iara N ascim en to 1
Ilcéia Ribeiro Sá 1
M atild e Meire M iran d a Cad ete 1
Helm u t Kloos 2
Abstract Th is p ap er exam in es th e relation sh ip betw een d om estic w ater u se an d socioecon om ic, en viron m en tal, an d sp atial p aram eters at th e h ou seh old level in a sm all ru ral village in n orth -ern Min as Gerais State. Five m eth od s are u sed – d irect observation , h ou seh old in terview s, self-re-p ortin g by h ou seh old s, regression an alysis, an d statistical m aself-re-p self-re-p in g. Resu lts sh ow th at w ater u se is ch aracterized by 1) gen erally low bu t w id ely flu ctu atin g valu es p er p erson p er d ay, 2) sh arin g of w ater sou rces betw een h ou seh old s, 3) th e u se of m u ltip le sou rces by in d ivid u al h ou seh old s, 4) avoid an ce of h eavily con tam in ated stream sites, an d 5) p red om in an ce of socioecon om ic factors in w at er u se. Hou seh old s ow n in g t h eir ow n w at er su p p ly u sed , on av erage, 25.3 lit ers p er p er-son /d ay an d th ose w ith ou t a su p p ly 9.0 l, w ith h igh er u se of th e local stream s am on g th e latter. Water u se varied sp atially. Th e socioecon om ic factors h ou se qu ality, latrin e ow n ersh ip , typ e of w at er sou rce, an d a u t ilit y in d ex w ere sign ifican t ly correlat ed w it h w at er u se. Im p licat ion s of th ese sim p le h ou seh old w ater sou rces an d th e m ore d eficien t san itary facilities for p oten tial w a-ter-born e d isease tran sm ission are briefly d iscu ssed an d su ggestion s m ad e for fu rth er im p rove-m en ts. Th is stu d y con firrove-m s th e ap p rop riaten ess of th e ap p lication of d irect observation , in ter-view, an d m icrogeograp h ical m eth od s for qu an titative w ater u se stu d ies.
Key words Dom estic Water Con su m p tion ; Ru ral Water Su p p ly; Water Qu an tity
Resumo Est e t rabalh o t ev e com o objet iv o est u d ar a relação d a u t iliz ação d om ést ica d e águ a com fatores sócio-econ ôm icos, am bien tais e esp aciais em com u n id ad e ru ral d o n ord este d e M i-n as Gerais. Utilizam os observação d ireta, ei-n trevistas, qu estioi-n ário, ai-n álise d e regressão e m ap as estatísticos. Os resu ltad os m ostraram qu e a u tilização d a águ a é caracterizad a p or 1) valores geralm en te baixos m as altam en te flu tu an tes p or p essoa/d ia; 2) u so com u m d as fon tes d e águ a en -tre fam ílias; 3) u so d e várias fon tes d e águ a; 4) n ão u tilização d e locais altam en te con tam in ad os d os córregos e 5) p red om in ân cia d e fatores sócio-econ ôm icos. Os d om icílios qu e p ossu em fon te própria de águ a u tilizaram , em m édia, 25,3 litros por pessoa/dia e aqu eles sem fon te própria, 9,0 l, com o ú ltim o gru p o u tilizan d o m ais as águ as d os córregos. O u so d e águ a ap resen tou , ain d a, va-riação esp acial. Os fatores sócio-econ ôm icos, con d ições d e m orad ia, p resen ça d e fossa, tip o d e águ a e ín d ice d e ben s d e con su m o foram relacion ad os sign ificativam en te ao u so d e águ a. Os d a-d os su gerem u m a rela çã o en t re fon t e a-d e á gu a , con a-d ições sa n it á ria s e a ocorrên cia a-d e a-d oen ça s tran sm itid as p ela águ a. Este estu d o con firm a a ad equ ação d os m étod os m icrogeográficos, d e ob-servação d ireta e d e en trevista p ara os estu d os qu an titativos sobre u tilização d e águ a.
Introduction
No t o n ly q u a lity b u t a lso q u a n tity o f d o m e stic wa t e r su p p lie s im p a ct s o n h u m a n h e a lt h . Th e re vie w b y Esre y & Ha b ich t (1986) o f 65 e p i-d e m io lo gica l st u i-d ie s o n t h e h e a lt h e ffe ct s o f im p rove d wa te r su p p lie s a n d sa n ita tio n fa cili-t ie s in d ica cili-t e s cili-t h a cili-t q u a n cili-t icili-t y o f wa cili-t e r is o fcili-t e n m o re im p o rt a n t t h a n q u a lit y, p a rt icu la rly in h eavily con tam in ated en viron m en ts. Man y ru r-a l co m m u n ities in th e p o o rer, n o rth ern p r-a rt o f Brazil lack safe water su p p lies (Giu glia n i,1989). Wa t e r co n su m p t io n co r re la t e s wit h size o f co m m u n it ie s a n d va r ie s b e t we e n re gio n s. In 1980, to ta l wa ter u se va ried fro m 350-450 liters p e r ca p it a p e r d a y in Sã o Pa u lo a n d Rio d e Jan eiro an d 250 liters in Cu ritib a to 200 liters in t h e la rge cit ie s, 150 lit e r s in m e d iu m - size d cit ie s, a n d 100 lit e r s in sm a ll t own s o f t h e n o r t h e a st ( To n ilio, 1982). Me t e re d co n su m p -t io n in Sã o Pa u lo in 1988 wa s 237 li-t e r s p e r ca p ita p e r d a y a n d 211 lite rs in Bra sília ( Ye p e s & Dia n d era , 1996). Ru ra l co m m u n ities in La tin Am e r ica h a ve b e e n e st im a t e d t o u se 40 lit e r s p e r ca p it a p e r d a y fro m st a n d p ip e s, co n sid e r-a b ly b e low t h e 100- 190 lit e r s u se d b y u r b r-a n h ou seh old s from p ip ed con n ection s (Sa u n d ers & Wa rford , 1976). Th e lowest con su m p tion levels h ave b een rep orted from ru ral African com -m u n ities (1-25 liters p er cap ita p er d ay), sign if-ica n tly b e low th e U SAID re co m m e n d e d ta rge t o f 20-40 liters p er ca p ita p er d a y (USAID, 1982; Teka , 1993).
Mo st wa t e r u se st u d ie s in Bra zil h a ve fo -cu se d o n e n gin e e r in g a sp e ct s o f la rge u r b a n wa t e r syst e m s a n d fe w o n so cio e co n o m ic a s-p e ct s o f r u ra l wa t e r so u rce s, e ve n t h o u gh t h e h igh e st p re va le n ce ra t e s o f wa t e r- re la t e d d is-e a sis-e s a ris-e fo u n d in r u ra l co m m u n it iis-e s. Th is-e u r-ge n cy o f p rovid in g im p rove d wa t e r so u rce s is a lso in d ica t e d by va r io u s h e a lt h b e n e fit s t h e y ca n co n fe r, ra n gin g fro m t h e re d u ct io n in t h e in cid e n ce o f d yse n t e r y, sch ist o so m ia sis, a n d o th e r wa te r-re la te d in fe ctio u s d ise a se s to se con d ary im p acts, su ch as p rom oticon of com m u -n it y p a rt icip a t io -n i-n p rim a r y h e a lt h ca re (E-n g e t a l., 1990; Mo h u n d wa , 1986). Cu rre n t e ffo rt s t o d e ve lo p a via b le p r im a r y h e a lt h ca re p ro gra m in Bra zil (Ha in e s, 1995) m a y fu r t h e r in crease th e n eed for relevan t in form ation on d o -m estic wa ter u se in ru ra l a rea s.
St u d ie s in va r io u s t ro p ica l re gio n s h a ve sh own th a t th e typ e, lo ca tio n , sea so n , u se p a t-tern s, an d m ain ten an ce of im p roved an d sem i-im p rove d d o m e st ic wa t e r so u rce s a ffe ct t h e q u a lit y a n d q u a n t it y o f wa t e r a va ila b le t o r u r-a l h o u se h o ld s (Cr-a ir n cro ss, 1989; Wh it e e t r-a l.
p u m p b reakage is wellkn own , th ere is little in -fo r m a t io n o n o t h e r fa ct o rs in r u ra l wa t e r u se, su ch a s p re fe re n ce fo r d iffe re n t wa t e r so u rce s a n d sh a r in g o f t h e sa m e so u rce s b y d iffe re n t h o u se h o ld s (Go r t e r e t a l.,1995; Sa u n d e r s & Wa r fo rd , 1976). Sim ila r ly, fe w st u d ie s wo r ld -wid e a n d n on e in Bra zil h a ve stu d ied q u a n tita-t ive ly tita-t h e u se o f m u ltita-t ip le im p rove d a n d se m iim p rove d wa t e r so u rce s b y t h e sa m e h o u se h o ld s. Bu t t h is in fo r m a t io n is n e e d e d if co m -m u n it y p a r t icip a t io n is t o co n t r ib u t e t o t h e p la n n in g, im p le m e n t a t io n , a n d m a in t e n a n ce o f wa ter su p p ly system s (Sa wyer, 1996). La stly, t h e re is a n e e d t o d e ve lo p m e t h o d o lo gie s fo r t h e st u d y o f r u ra l wa t e r u se t h a t p e r m it co m p re h e n sive a n a lysis o f t h e p ro b le m a n d co m p a ra b ilit y o f t h e re su lt s b y d iffe re n t in ve st iga -to rs.
Th e o b je ct ive o f t h is p a p e r is t o e xa m in e d o m e st ic wa t e r u se in Nova Un iã o villa ge in It a b ir in h a d e Ma n t e n a Mu n icíp io, Min a s Ge -ra is St a t e in B-ra zil, a su b sist e n ce a gr icu lt u -ra l co m m u n it y o f a b o u t 200 p e o p le . Th e fo cu s is on q u a n tifyin g wa ter ob ta in ed from a ll sou rces b y h o u se h o ld s in re la t io n t o so cio e co n o m ic, e n viro n m e n t a l, a n d d ist a n ce fa ct o r s a n d o n eva lu a tin g severa l d a ta -co llectin g a n d a n a lytic m e th o d s. Da ily a n d se a so n a l va ria tio n s in wa -ter u se a n d a m o u n ts u sed fo r d ifferen t d o m es-tic a ctivities a re exa m in ed in a sep a ra te p a p er. Th is stu d y form s an in tegral p art of an on goin g e p id e m io lo gica l a n d h u m a n b e h a vio ra l in ve st iga st io n o f sch isst o so m ia sis wist h a h e a lst h e d u -ca t io n in t e r ve n t io n in Nova Un iã o a n d t h e n e igh b o r in g villa ge o f Bo a Un iã o. Re su lt s o f t h is st u d y m a y a lso b e u se fu l t o p la n n e r s d e -sign in g wa t e r su p p ly syst e m s fo r sm a ll r u ra l co m m u n ities in p o o rer a rea s o f Bra zil.
M ethods
Water sources, frequency of contacts, and quantity of water
for h alfd ay sh ifts to ob ser ve an d record all wa t e r co n t a ct a ct ivit ie s a t 24 sit e s fo r 7 co n se cu -t ive d a ys b e -t we e n 7:30 A.M . a n d 5:30 P.M . Th e se sit e s we re a t st re a m s, we lls, p ro t e ct e d sp r in gs, r u b b e r p ip e s b r in gin g wa t e r fro m sp rin gs, fish p on d s, an d a p lay p on d con stru ct-e d b y ch ild rct-e n (Figu rct-e 1). Th ct-e o b sct-e r vct-e rs, ct-e a ch o f t h e m a ssign e d t o sp e cific co n t a ct sit e s, re co rd e d o n fo r m s t h e n a m e s, a ge, se x, a n d h ou se n u m b er of all p erson s com in g in con tact with water at th ese sites, th e typ e of water con -t a c-t a c-t ivi-t y (wa sh in g clo -t h e s, fe -t ch in g wa -t e r, wa sh in g h a n d s, fa ce o r fe e t , b a t h in g, wa sh in g u ten sils, strea m cro ssin g, fish in g, p la yin g, irri-gatin g gard en s, an d “oth er activities”), d u ration o f e a ch co n t a ct , a n d t h e sit e u se d . Ra n d o m sp o t ch e cks o f o b se r va t io n a n d re co rd in g a c-t ivic-t ie s we re m a d e d a ily, a n d wa c-t e r u se b e fo re a n d a fter th e o b ser va tio n p erio d wa s o b ser ved o n 4 d a ys b y o n e o f th e in vestiga to rs (H .K.) fo r q u ality con trol. A cen su s list was u sed to d elete from th e stu d y all p erson s n ot livin g d e facto in th e 39 h o u seh o ld s in clu d ed in th e stu d y.
Be ca u se t h e wa t e r u se o f h o u se h o ld s wit h th eir own wa ter su p p ly cou ld n ot b e effectively o b se r ve d , t h e y we re in t e r vie we d t wice a d a y (b e t we e n 11:30 A.M.-12:30 P.M. a n d 5:30 P.M.-6:30 P.M.) d u rin g th e 7-d a y stu d y in Novem b er a b o u t th e q u a n tity o f wa ter (in liters) th ey h a d u se d d u r in g t h e d a y fo r d iffe re n t a ct ivit ie s. In a d d it io n , t h e fe m a le h e a d s o f 4 h o u se h o ld s we re a ske d t o re co rd o n fo rm s t h e q u a n t it y o f a ll wa t e r u se d fo r in d ivid u a l a ct ivit ie s ca rr ie d o u t in th e h o u se fo r a 3-d a y p erio d .
Th re e h o u se h o ld s wh ich we re t e m p o ra r ily a b se n t a s we ll a s 1 h o u se h o ld wit h u n re lia b le Nove m b e r wa t e r u se d a t a we re e xclu d e d fro m th is stu d y. Two o th e r h o u se h o ld s, lo ca te d o u t-sid e t h e villa ge p r o p e r, we re p e r m a n e n t ly e x-clu d ed fo r lo gistic rea so n s.
Socioeconomic and environmental factors
Focu s grou p d iscu ssion s were h eld in Ju ly 1996 am on g 3 grou p s each con sistin g of sch ool-aged ch ild re n a n d a d u lt m e n a n d wo m e n wit h t h e o b je ct ive o f id e n t ifyin g t h e m a jo r h e a lt h a n d e co n o m ic p ro b le m s in Nova Un iã o, a s we ll a s p a t t e r n s a n d p ro b le m s o f d o m e st ic wa t e r u se a n d a s b a ckgro u n d fo r th e q u estio n n a ires. Un -st r u ct u re d in t e r vie ws a m o n g in fo r m a n t s wh o we re re p e a t e d ly visit e d d u r in g t h e 4 t r ip s t o Nova Un ião in 1996 p rovid ed d etailed in form a-tion on water sh arin g p ractices, social p attern s, a n d t h e co n st ru ct io n a n d m a in t e n a n ce o f im -p roved wa ter su -p -p lies a n d la trin es. A -p re-test-e d q u re-test-e stio n n a irre-test-e wa s a d m in istre-test-e rre-test-e d b y 2 o f th re-test-e in vestiga to rs (A.O. a n d M.C.) to a ll h o u seh o ld s
in Au gu st 1996. Th is in fo r m e d o n so cio e co -n o m ic le ve l, d e m o gra p h ic p a t t e r -n s, wa t e r sou rces u sed for d ifferen t activities th rou gh ou t th e yea r, en viro n m en ta l sa n ita tio n , h o u seh o ld in co m e, a n d d em o gra p h ic p a ra m eters.
A u t ilit y in d e x wa s co n st r u ct e d fo r e a ch h o u se h o ld a s a m e a su re o f we a lt h b a se d o n m aterial p ossession s, d u e to th e com m on p rob le m o f o b t a in in g re lia b le in fo r m a t io n o n in -co m e in r u ra l a re a s a n d t h e e ffe ct ive u se o f su ch in d ices by oth er in vestiga tors of ru ra l wa -ter u se ( Wh ite et al., 1972). Each variab le in cor-p o ra t e d in t o t h is in d e x wa s a ssign e d d iffe re n t sco re s fo r q u a n t it a t ive a n a lysis, a s fo llows: n o u t ilit ie s own e d (0 sco re ), ra d io (1), ra d io a n d wo o d fu e l fo r co o kin g (sco re 1 e a ch ), ga s fo r co o kin g a n d vid e o (2 e a ch ), e le ct r icit y fo r co o kin g a n d TV (3 e a ch ), re fr ige ra t o r (4), m o -to rcycle (5), ca r (6), la n d own ersh ip (7).
A h o u se q u a lit y in d e x wa s a lso d e ve lo p e d a s a m e a su re o f m a t e r ia l we a lt h a n d e n vir o n -m e n t a l sa n it a t io n b y in t e gra t in g q u a lit y o f h ou se floor (d irt floor score 1, wood 2, con crete 3, ce ra m ic t ile 4), wa lls (wo o d st ick/ m u d 1, wood 2, con crete 3, tile 4), roof (wood 1, corru ga t e d st e e l 2, a sb e st o s 3, t ile 4) a n d e n vir o n -m e n t a l sa n it a t io n a n d h o u se -m a in t e n a n ce , b o t h in sid e t h e h o u se a n d o u t sid e (ve r y d ir t y an d p oorly m ain tain ed 1, m ed iu m 2, very clean a n d we ll m a in t a in e d 3). Th e in fo r m a t io n o n we a lt h wa s o b t a in e d fro m h o u se h o ld in t e r -vie ws a n d o n e n vir o n m e n t a l sa n it a t io n a n d h ou se m a in ten a n ce from d irect ob serva tion by in terviewers.
Distance
Map s were p rep ared of th e location of all occu -p ie d h o u se s, st re a m s, a n d t h e ir wa t e r co n t a ct sit e s, fish p o n d s, we lls, sp r in gs, p ip e d wa t e r o u tlets, la trin es, a n d fen ces (Figu re 1). Th e fre-q u e n cy a n d d u ra t io n o f a ll co n t a ct s a n d o f fetch in g water ou tsid e th e h om e were m ap p ed . Th e d ist a n ce t ra ve le d b y h o u se h o ld m e m b e rs to fetch water was calcu lated u sin g th e straigh t lin e m e t h o d , wh ich h a s b e e n su cce ssfu lly a p -p lied in va riou s wa ter con ta ct stu d ies (Kloos et a l., 1983, 1997).
Q uantitative analysis
Fig ura 1
No va União : stud y ho use ho ld s and wate r so urc e s.
Ho use ho ld stud ie d
Ho use ho ld no t stud ie d
Churc h
Sc ho o l
Manual we ll
Pro te c te d sp ring
Unp ro te c te d sp ring
Plastic p ip e
We ll with e le tric p ump
Latrine
Stre am c o ntac t o b se rvatio n site
Fish p o nd
Ro ad
Fe nc e
Fo o tp ath
me te rs
Results
Study community, population, and water supply
Nova Un iã o h a s n e a r ly 200 p e o p le , b a se d o n o u r 1996 ce n su s. Da ily fa r m la b o r a n d sh a re -cro p p in g in co ffe e, b e a n s, m a ize, a n d r ice, a s we ll a s ca t t le ra n ch in g o n sm a ll a n d m e d iu m -size d fa rm s (fazen d as) a re th e m a in so u rce s o f in co m e. Th e villa ge is o n ly a b o u t 30 ye a rs o ld , an d th e origin al settlers an d th eir d escen d an ts, m o st o f wh o m o r igin a t e d o n n e a rb y fazen d as, fo rm a so cia l n u cleu s. Nova Un iã o h a s n o p u b -lic se r vice s b e sid e s a gra d e sch o o l t e a ch in g gra d e s 1-4, e le ctr icity, a n d a b u s se r vice to th e ce n t e r o f It a b ir in h a d e Ma n t e n a Mu n icíp io (Co u n t y) a n d o t h e r n e a r b y t own s. All h o u se -h old s d evelop ed t-h eir own wa ter sou rces u sin g t h e ir own re so u rce s wit h o u t gove r n m e n t o r N GO (n o n gove r n m e n t a l o rga n iza t io n ) su p -p o r t . Twe n t y- fo u r o f t h e 39 h o u se h o ld s h a d we lls, p ro te cte d sp rin gs, a n d p ip e d sp rin g wa -t e r ; -t h e re m a in in g h o u se h o ld s o b -t a in e d -t h e ir d o m estic wa ter fro m th ese own ers o r fro m th e st re a m s. On ly 10 h o u se h o ld s, t h e 2 ch u rch e s a n d t h e sch o o l h a d la t r in e s, a ll o f t h e p o u r-flu sh t yp e wh ich d isch a r ge d via p la st ic p ip e s in to th e n ea rby strea m s (Figu re 1). Th e p overty o f m o st h o u se h o ld s n e ce ssit a t e s t h a t sch o o l ch ild re n fre q u e n t ly wo rk in a gr icu lt u re, a m a -jo r fa ct o r in t h e lo w e d u ca t io n a l le ve l o f t h e p o p u la t io n . Ma n y yo u n g p e o p le m igra t e t o t own s in se a rch o f n o n - fa r m jo b s, b u t b ir t h s a n d n e w se t t le r s m a in t a in a lo w p o p u la t io n growth ra te.
Q uantity of water used
A t o t a l o f 20,918 lit e rs d r a wn fro m a ll so u rce s we re re co rd e d b y d ire ct o b se r va t io n a n d t h e h ou seh old su r veys for th e 35 stu d y h ou seh old s. Me a n q u a n t it ie s p e r h o u se h o ld we re 820.7 liters for h ou seh old s own in g water sou rces an d 220.2 lit e r s fo r t h o se la ckin g a so u rce b u t a m o u n t s d ra wn b y in d ivid u a l h o u se h o ld s ra n ge d fro m 20 t o 1,592 lit e rs. Me a n a m o u n t s p e r ca p it a p e r d a y we re 25.3 lit e r s fo r own e r h ou seh old s an d 9.0 liters for n on -own er h ou se-h old s, witse-h 8 se-h ou sese-h old s in tse-h e latter u sin g less t h a n 10 lit e r s a n d 4 h o u se h o ld s in t h e fo r m e r u sin g m o re t h a n 40 lit e rs. To t a l a m o u n t s we re sign ifica n tly sm a ller, o n a vera ge, fo r wells with e le ctric p u m p s th a n m a n u a l so u rce s (p <0.05), a lt h o u gh t h e la rge st p e r ca p it a a m o u n t s (70.5 lit e r s) we re u se d b y a h o u se h o ld u sin g a we ll wit h a p u m p . An e st im a t e d 85% o f a ll wa t e r u sed for d om estic p u rp oses in Novem b er cam e
fro m im p rove d so u rce s a n d 15% fro m t h e stream s, alth ou gh q u an tities of water u sed d u r -in g a ctivities ca rried o u t a t th e strea m s ca n n o t b e re lia b ly q u a n t ifie d . Th e se e st im a t e s a re b a sed o n th e freq u en cy a n d d u ra tio n o f d iffer-e n t t yp iffer-e s o f wa t iffer-e r co n t a ct a ct ivit iiffer-e s a n d iffer-e st i-m a tes o f th e a ctu a l a i-m o u n t o f wa ter u sed (Fig-u re s 2 a n d 3). Dire ct o b se r va t io n sh owe d t h a t m o re t h a n 99% o f a ll wa t e r wa s fe t ch e d fr o m im p rove d so u rce s a n d o n ly 0.7% fr o m t h e strea m s, m o stly fo r wa sh in g clo th es a n d h o u se clean in g. Non -own ers ob tain ed larger am ou n ts fro m th e strea m s th a n own ers ( Ta b le 1).
Se lf-re p o r t in g o f wa t e r u se d d u r in g 2 d a ys in t h e h o m e b y 4 h o u se h o ld s own in g a wa t e r sou rce sh owed th a t 41% of th e tota l 1,794 liters d rawn were u sed for p erson al h ygien e (b ath in g m o st ly, a lso wa sh in g h a n d s a n d o t h e r p a r ts o f t h e b o d y, a n d la u n d e r in g), 33% fo r co o kin g, d rin kin g, a n d wa sh in g o f u ten sils, a n d 24% fo r e n viro n m e n t a l sa n it a t io n (wa sh in g flo o rs a n d flu sh in g to ilets).
O wnership of water sources, social relations, and sharing of water
Fig ura 2
Numb e r o f wate r c o ntac ts with the stre ams p e r ho use ho ld . A: ho use ho ld s o wning a wate r so urc e ;
B: ho use ho ld s no t o wning a wate r so urc e .
< 5
5
20
33 (maximum)
Fig ura 3
Q uantity o f wate r (in lite rs) o b taine d b y ho use ho ld s fro m ne ig hb o rs o r re lative s. A: ho use ho ld s o wning a wate r so urc e ;
B: ho use ho ld s no t o wning a wate r so urc e .
< 50
50
200
339 (maximum)
Tab le 1
To tal q uantity (lite rs) o f wate r fe tc he d fro m all so urc e s and fro m stre ams b y 22 ho use ho ld s o wning wate r so urc e s and 13 ho use ho ld s
witho ut so urc e s d uring 7 d ays in re latio n to typ e o f wate r so urc e and numb e r o f p e rso ns p e r ho use ho ld .
Household no Water source owned noof persons Total quantity Streams (%) Liters/ person/ day
O wners
1 We ll, manual 2 451 9 (2.0) 32.2
2 We ll, manual 5 1,592 0 45.5
3 We ll, manual 8 1,005 0 17.9
4 We ll, manual 9 753 0 20.9*
5 We ll with p ump 2 987 0 70.5
6 We ll with p ump 3 382 0 18.2
7 We ll with p ump 9 836 14 (1.7) 15.5*
8 Pro te c te d sp ring 6 1,188 0 28.3
9 Pro te c te d sp ring 6 1,306 0 31.1
10 Pro te c te d sp ring 7 414 0 8.4
11 Pip e fro m sp ring 2 535 0 38.2
12 Pip e fro m sp ring 2 364 0 26.0
13 Pip e fro m sp ring 2 371 34 (9.2) 26.5
14 Pip e fro m sp ring 3 1,266 0 60.3
15 Pip e fro m sp ring 4 753 0 26.9
16 Pip e fro m sp ring 4 932 0 33.3
17 Pip e fro m sp ring 5 692 0 19.8
18 Pip e fro m sp ring 6 1,561 36 (2.3) 37.2
19 Pip e fro m sp ring 6 467 0 13.0*
20 Pip e fro m sp ring 7 418 0 8.5
21 Pip e and manual we ll 2 640 0 45.7
22 Pip e and manual we ll 5 1,142 0 32.6
N on-owners
1 No ne 1 108 36 (33.3) 18.0*
2 No ne 1 20 0 2.9
3 No ne 2 156 0 11.1
4 No ne 2 82 0 5.9
5 No ne 3 286 2 (0.7) 13.6
6 No ne 3 181 0 8.6
7 No ne 4 202 0 7.2
8 No ne 4 112 10 (8.9) 4.0
9 No ne 4 213 5 (2.3) 7.6
10 No ne 5 158 0 4.5
11 No ne 5 617 9 (1.5) 17.6
12 No ne 6 164 0 3.9
13 No ne 6 564 0 13.4
O wners subtotal 105 (4.0) 18,055 (820.7) 93 (0.5) (25.3)
(me an p e r ho use ho ld )
N on-owners subtotal 46 (3.5) 2,863 (220.2) 62 (2.2) (9.0)
(me an)
fr o m t h e m a in s t re a m c o m p la in e d o f in a d e -q u a t e , p o o r -q u a lit y s u p p lie s a n d u s e d we lls n e a re r to th e st re a m t o m e e t t h e ir n e e d s (Fig-u re 3).
Th e sh a rin g o f th e m a n u a lly o p era ted wells a n d p ip e s wit h n e igh b o r s a n d re la t ive s co n -t ra s-t s wi-t h -t h e re s-t r ic-t ive u se o f we lls wi-t h p u m p s. Th e own e r s o f t h e se we lls m e n t io n e d th e h igh cost of electricity as th e reason for n ot sh arin g th em with oth er h ou seh old s. Th is is al-so in d ica t e d b y t h e low p e r ca p it a u se in 2 o f t h e 3 h o u se h o ld s own in g we lls wit h p u m p s (Figu re 2). Mo re recen t in sta lla tio n s o f electric p u m p s in a d d itio n a l h o u seh o ld s h a ve resu lted in a d d it io n a l ch a n ge s in wa t e r u se p a t t e r n s, wh ich will b e rep o rted sep a ra tely.
Distance
Dist a n ce b e t we e n h o u se h o ld s a n d wa t e r so u rce s h a d o n ly a m o d e ra te in flu e n ce o n u se p a ttern s. Wh ile a ll h o u seh o ld s o b ta in in g wa ter fro m o t h e r h o u se h o ld s re lie d o n so u rce s in th eir im m ed iate n eigh b orh ood s, m an y of th em d id n o t u se t h e n e a re st im p rove d so u rce o r strea m site (Figu res 2 a n d 3).
Stream use
Hou seh old m em b ers traveled con sid erab ly fart h e r fart o fart h e sfart re a m co n fart a cfart sifart e s fart h a n fart o im -p rove d wa t e r so u rce s. Mo re t h a n 80% o f a ll re co rd e d st re a m co n t a ct s we re a t t h e fa vo re d , le ss p o llu t e d 2 la u n d r y a n d u t e n sil wa sh in g sites u p strea m , ou tsid e th e villa ge, a n d th e wa-ter fetch in g site a t th e u p strea m en d o f th e vil-lage. Th e 2 oth er stream sites u sed p rim arily for wa sh in g u t e n sils we re o n t h e r igh t t r ib u t a r y st re a m in t h e lowe r se ct io n o f t h e villa ge. Th e st re a m sit e s in t h e ce n t e r o f t h e villa ge, wh ich a re co n t a m in a t e d b y t h e e fflu e n t o f la t r in e s, we re ra re ly u se d b y a d u lt s b u t b y ch ild re n fo r p la yin g o r fish in g. Th re e o f t h e 4 fish p o n d s co n ta in in g wa te r in Nove m b e r we re o cca sio n -a lly u se d b y ch ild re n fo r p l-a yin g -a n d fish in g (Figu res 2 a n d 3).
M aintenance and improvements of systems
All h o u se h o ld s we re a ske d a b o u t t h e n a t u re a n d fre q u e n cy o f m a in t a in in g t h e ir wa t e r sys-tem s. All own ers of wells an d p rotected sp rin gs st a t e d t h a t t h e y cle a n t h e m se ve ra l t im e s a ye a r, m o st ly o f d e b ris a n d a lga e, a n d ke e p t h e gro u n d a ro u n d t h e se so u rce s fro m b e co m in g m u d d y. Th e se la b o r in te n sive o p e ra tio n s typ i-ca lly in vo lve em p tyin g o f th e wells a n d sp rin gs a n d scr u b b in g t h e st o n e wa lls wit h b r u sh e s.
Se ve ra l own e r s we re p a r t icu la r ly co n ce r n e d a b o u t a q u a t ic sn a ils a n d wo r m s a s p o ssib le d isea se-ca u sin g o rga n ism s. At lea st o n e sp rin g wa s fo u n d to co n ta in in fe cte d sch isto so m ia sis in term ed iate h ost sn ails (Biom ph alaria glabra-ta). Th re e n e w p ip e d h o u se h o ld co n n e ct io n s wit h wa sh b a sin s a n d sh o we r s we re in st a lle d a n d 2 m a n u a l wells co n stru cted d u rin g th e Ju -ly-Novem b er p erio d .
Simple correlation analysis
Sim p le co rre la t io n a n a lysis wa s ca rrie d o u t t o e xa m in e t h e re la t io n sh ip b e t we e n in d ivid u a l p a ir s o f va r ia b le s. Ho u se q u a lit y, t h e va r ia b le m o st st ro n gly a sso cia t e d wit h t h e d e p e n d e n t va r ia b le lit e rs o f wa t e r fe t ch e d p e r p e rso n p e r d a y (R = 0.7177) wa s a lso sign ifica n tly correla t-ed with n u m b er o f ro o m s, in co m e, d u ra tio n o f st a y in Nova Un iã o, t h e u t ilit y in d e x, a n d la -t r in e. All so cio e co n o m ic va r ia b le s, e xce p -t n u m b er o f ch ild ren wo rkin g in a gricu ltu re a n d n u m b e r o f p e rso n s p e r h o u se h o ld , we re p o si-t ive ly c o r re la si-t e d wisi-t h wa si-t e r u se , a s wa s si-t h e p re se n ce o f a la tr in e. Th e n e ga tive co rre la tio n b e t we e n n u m b e r o f wo r kin g c h ild re n a n d m o st so cio eco n o m ic va ria b les ( Ta b le 2) is co n -sist e n t wit h t h e sm a lle r, p o o re r h o u se h o ld s la ckin g t h e ir own wa t e r so u rce ( Ta b le 1). Th e in flu e n c e o f p o ve r t y o n p e r c a p it a w a t e r u s e is a ls o b o r n e o u t b y t h e n e ga t ive c o r re la t io n b e t w e e n d is t a n c e t o t h e n e a re s t im p r o ve d w a t e r s o u rc e a n d w a t e r u s e a s w e ll a s a ll s o cio e co n o m ic va r ia b le s a n d t yp e o f wa t e r su p -p ly ( Ta b le 2).
M ultiple regression analysis
Discussion and conclusion
Th is stu d y of d om estic water u se in a sm all r u r-a l co m m u n it y re ve r-a le d so m e we ll-kn own r-a n d o t h e r n e w re la t io n sh ip s wit h so cio e co n o m ic, d em ograp h ic, an d en viron m en tal factors. Fore-m o st , t h e p re d o Fore-m in a n ce o f p r iva t e ly own e d , co n stru cted , a n d m a in ta in ed wa ter system s in Nova Un iã o villa ge re p re se n t s a n e ffe ct ive a d a p t a t io n t o a p o o r so cio e co n o m ic e n viro n -m en t with rela tively well en d owed su rfa ce a n d gro u n d wa t e r re so u rce s. Bo t h t h e in it ia t ive s o f in d ivid u a l h o u se h o ld s to co n stru ct a n d m a in -tain sim p le, low-cost system s an d th eir willin g-n ess to sh a re th eir wa ter so u rces with villa gers la ckin g t h e ir own su p p ly a ssu re s t h a t b a sic n e e d s fo r d o m e st ic wa t e r a re b e in g m e t , a l-th o u gh l-th e la rge va ria tio n s in p er ca p ita wa ter u se a m o n g h o u se h o ld s in d ica te a n e e d fo r a d -d it io n a l wa t e r. Th e la rge p ro p o r t io n o f wa t e r u sed for p erson al h ygien e an d san itation in th e
n ess in th e p o p u la tio n , in co n tra st to m a n y a r-ea s in th e An d r-ea n co u n tries, wh ere tra d itio n a l h ygie n e p r a c t ic e s d e p re ss wa t e r u se (Sa ra e t a l., 1996).
Th e m e t h o d o lo gy d e ve lo p e d h e re fo r e m -p irica l wa te r stu d ie s h a s a -p -p lica tio n s n o t o n ly fo r t h e d e ve lo p m e n t o f co m m u n it y wa t e r sou rces b u t also for th e con trol of sch istosom ia sis ia n d o t h e r wia t e rre lia t e d d ise ia se s. By sp ia tia lly a n d sta tistica lly co rrela tin g va rio u s m ea -su re s o f wa te r co n ta ct b e h a vio r a n d wa te r u se with in fection level of h ou seh old s (or in d ivid u a ls), h igh risk b eh a vior a m en a b le to h ea lth ed -u ca t io n m a y b e id e n t ifie d a t t h e co m m -u n it y a n d n e igh b o r h o o d le ve ls a n d t h e ro le o f im -p rove d wa t e r su -p -p lie s fo r t h e -p re ve n t io n o f t ra n sm issio n e va lu a t e d . All e a r lie r st u d ie s o f t h e im p a ct o f im p r ove d wa t e r su p p lie s o n sch isto so m ia sis in Bra zil were b a sed o n th e in -t e r vie w m e -t h o d s o n ly, wh ich ca n n o -t p rovid e ve r ifia b le a n d m a p p a b le d a t a (Klo o s e t a l., Tab le 3
Summary o f ste p wise re g re ssio n o f ind e p e nd e nt variab le s sig nific antly c o rre late d with lite rs/ p e r c ap ita/ p e r d ay.
Step n Variable entered M ultiple R Probabil. F-ratio Partial R Probalil. Adjusted R2
1 Ho use q uality 0.7177 < 0.0001 35.04 0.6744 < 0.0001
2 Typ e o f 0.7827 0.0078 25.31 0.4052 0.0214
3 Latrine 0.8203 0.0323 21.25 0.4205 0.0165 0.6776
4 Utility ind e x 0.8459 0.0423 18.87 -0.3611 0.0423
10 All 10 variab le s 0.8721 7.62
0.6537 Tab le 2
Co rre latio n matrix o f the re latio nship b e twe e n lite rs o f wate r fe tc he d p e r p e rso n p e r d ay (wate r use d ) and 9 ind e p e nd e nt variab le s.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
Wate r use d (1)
Wate r so urc e (2) 0.5470**
nop e rso ns (3) -0.2077 0.031
Utility ind e x (4) 0.1224 0.0742 0.0457
Latrine (5) 0.5700** 0.3079 0.1045 0.1820
Inc o me (6) 0.4156** 0.1195 -0.3810* 0.4329** 0.3917*
Child wo rk (7) -0.249 -0.0353 -0.3810* 0.2038 -0.3037 -0.2081
Ed uc atio n (8) 0.07278 0.1932 -0.2052 0.2560 0.2438 0.0554 -0.2354
Distanc e (9) -0.5358** -0.6238** 0.1996 -0.2226 -0.1418 0.1113 -0.1219 -0.1970
Ho use q uality (10) 0.7177** 0.3553* -0.1810 0.4635** 0.4136* 0.5186** 0.0132 0.1151 -0.4779**
Wh ile t h e q u a n t it y o f wa t e r fe t ch e d fr o m th e stream s for h om e u se was in sign ifican t fu rth er in d ica tin g rth a t im p roved so u rces a re p ro -vid in g a fairly ad eq u ate su p p ly for cookin g an d d r in kin g fre q u e n t u se o f t h e lo ca l st re a m s fo r wa sh in g clo th e s a n d u te n sils re ve a l a n e e d fo r a p p ro p ria te co m m u n ity la u n d r y fa cilities. Per-sist e n t u se o f t h e st re a m s in t h e p re se n ce o f a b u n d a n t gro u n d wa t e r a n d o t h e r im p r ove d so u rce s wa s a lso d e scrib e d in Egyp t a n d a sso cia ted with wa ter p referen ces, th e n eed fo r a p -p ro -p r ia t e -p h ysica l se t t in gs (-p re se n ce o f ro cks fo r b e a t in g la u n d r y, gra ssy a re a s fo r d r yin g clo th es, a n d a b sen ce o f m u d d y d ra in a ge wa ter a ro u n d we lls a n d sp rin gs), a n d so cia l in t e ra c-tion s of th e u sers, b reakd own of p ip ed system s, a n d lo n g wa it in g lin e s a t t h e co m m u n it y p u m p s (El Katsh a et al., 1989; Kloos et al., 1983; Kh a ir y, 1986). Ne ve rth e le ss, wid e va ria tio n s in p er ca p ita p er d a y wa ter u se a m o n g b o th own -ers a n d n on -own -ers req u ires th a t th e d egree of t h e ir sa t isfa c t io n wit h a va ila b le su p p lie s b e d eterm in ed fu rth er.
Alth o u gh th e p riva te wa ter so u rces in Nova Un iã o co m e clo se t o wh a t Wh it e e t a l. (1972) d escrib ed a s th e “id ea l ca se o f in d ivid u a l m a n -a ge m e n t fo r in d ivid u -a l f-a m ilie s”, fro m t h e p o in t o f view o f co st effectiven ess a n d m a in te-n a te-n ce, th e m a te-n u a l wells a te-n d p ro tected sp rite-n gs wh ich a re b e in g u se d b y va r io u s h o u se h o ld s m a y b e a t in crea sed risk o f m icro b ia l co n ta m i-n a t io i-n , a s o b se r ve d e lse wh e re ( Wh it e e t a l., 1972). Un im p rove d b u cke t we lls, ro p e we lls wit h win d la ss, a n d so u rce s wit h o u t a ce m e n t cover, a ll of wh ich exist in Nova Un iã o, a re p a r-ticu la rly su sce p tib le to co n ta m in a tio n (Go rte r e t a l., 1995), a s is th e n e a rn e ss o f m o st sp rin gs to latrin es. Alth ou gh resid en ts d id n ot con sid er d ia rr h e a l d ise a se s t o b e a m a jo r p r o b le m , t h e p o t a b ilit y o f im p r ove d so u rce s h a s n o t b e e n d eterm in ed .
Th e role of socioecon om ic level in water u se h a s b e e n we ll e st a b lish e d ( Wh it e e t a l., 1972; Sa u n d ers & Wa rfo rd , 1976), b u t th e stre n gth o f t h e t h e se re la t io n sh ip s in t h is sm a ll r u ra l vil-la ge vil-la ckin g t h e so cio e co n o m ic d ive r sit y o f town s co m e s a s a su rp r ise. Th is fin d in g is p a r-ticu la rly n o tewo rth y in Nova Un iã o, wh ere th e co st o f m a t e r ia ls fo r co n st r u ct in g a m a n u a l well is low (20-30 Rea is = 20-30$US). Neverth e-le ss, t h e e xt re m e ly low in co m e e-le ve ls o f t h e p op u la tion , a lso in d ica ted by wid esp rea d ch ild la b o r, re n d e r s t h e se co st s u n a ffo rd a b le fo r m a n y h o u seh o ld s.
Th e u se o f m o re t h a n o n e wa t e r so u rce b y m a n y in d ivid u a l h o u se h o ld s h a s b e e n d e -sc r ib e d in o t h e r t ro p ic a l a re a s c h a ra c t e r ize d b y t h e a va ila b ilit y o f d iffe re n t im p rove d a n d
u n im p rove d so u rce s ( Wh ite e t a l., 1972; Klo o s e t a l., 1983; 1997a , So m e & Om u r wa , 1994). Use o f m u lt ip le so u rc e s c o n t r ib u t e s t o m e e t -in g so cia l n eed s a n d th e wa ter req u irem en ts o f h o u se h o ld s, sin ce d iffe re n t t yp e s o f wa t e r a re p re fe r re d fo r d iffe re n t h o u se h o ld a c t ivit ie s, su ch a s strea m wa ter fo r la u n d erin g a n d wa sh -in g p a r t s o f t h e b o d y a ft e r wo r k -in t h e fie ld s a n d we ll a n d sp r in g wa t e r fo r co o kin g, d r in k-in g, b a th k-in g, a n d o th er h o u seh o ld ch o res.
In co n t ra st t o t h e im p rove d wa t e r so u rce s, th e p rivate latrin es are h ard ly accep tab le. Th eir efflu en t con tam in ates th e stream s with h u m an e xcre m e n t a n d ova o f t h e h igh ly p re va le n t S. m an son i, An cylostom a d u od en ale,a n d Ascaris lu m bricoid esp a ra sit e s (R. C. Olive ira , u n p u b -lish e d d a t a ). Mo re ove r, a b se n ce o f la t r in e s a m o n g p o o r fa m ilie s co n t r ib u t e s t o co n t a m i-n a tio i-n o f th e ei-n viro i-n m ei-n t a ro u i-n d h o u ses a i-n d wa te r so u rce s. Alth o u gh th e fa m ily-co n stru ct-e d la t r in ct-e s wct-e rct-e b ct-e t t ct-e r m a in t a in ct-e d t h a n in so m e La t in Am e r ica n e xt e r n a lly fu n d e d wa -ter/ san itation p rojects (Sara et al. 1996), latrin e u se re m a in s sp o ra d ic in th is a gricu ltu ra l co m m u n ity. Th is situ a tion a p p ea rs to b e d u e m a in -ly to th e p ove rty o f th e p o p u la tio n ra th e r th a n t ra d it io n a l d e fe ca t io n p ra ct ice s, in d ica t e d b y t h e re la t ive ly h igh co st o f la t rin e s a n d t h e e x-t e n sive u se o f wa x-t e r fo r p e r so n a l h ygie n e . In a d d it io n t o ra isin g e co n o m ic le ve ls, im p rove -m e n t s in sa n it a t io n a n d h e a lt h e d u ca t io n in com b in a tion with im p rovem en ts in wa ter su p -p lies m ay b e a -p rereq u isite to im -p rovin g h ealth levels, as n oted elsewh ere (Esrey, 1996; Van Der-slice & Briscoe, 1995).
Th is stu d y in d icates th at d irect ob servation , th e m eth o d u sed to m ea su re q u a n tity o f wa ter d ra wn b y n o n - own e rs fro m va r io u s im p rove d so u rce s, ca n yie ld d e t a ile d , re lia b le, a n d co m -p lete in form ation an d m ay th u s b e a-p -p ro-p riate for u se at th e h ou seh old level in sm all com m u -n ities. Th is m eth od , u sed i-n th e p ast alm ost ex-clu sive ly fo r wa t e r co n t a ct st u d ie s m e a su r in g risk b e h a vio r in sch isto so m ia sis e p id e m io lo gy ( WH O, 1979; Klo o s e t a l., 1990, 1997a ), m a y th u s b e a d a p te d fo r u se in stu d ie s q u a n tifyin g d o m estic wa ter u se in co m m u n ities wh ere wa -ter-fetch in g a ctivities ca n b e relia b ly ob served . Th e p re se n ce in Nova Un iã o o f h o u se h o ld s la ckin g t h e ir own wa t e r su p p ly wh o u se d so u rces o f o th er h o u seh o ld s a n d u se o f m a in ly 3 sizes o f b u ckets (9, 12, a n d 18 liters) fa cilita t-ed th e o b serva tio n a n d m ea su rin g p ro cess.
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