Revista
de
Administração
http://rausp.usp.br/ RevistadeAdministração52(2017)93–102
Human
Resources
&
Organizations
Adaptation
and
obtainment
of
evidence
for
the
validity
of
the
“Scale
of
Perceived
Sacrifices
Associated
with
Leaving
(the
organization)”
in
the
Brazilian
context:
a
study
among
teachers
of
basic,
technical,
and
technological
education
Adapta¸cão
e
obten¸cão
de
evidências
para
a
validade
da
“Escala
de
Sacrifícios
Percebidos
Associados
com
a
Saída
(da
organiza¸cão)”
no
contexto
brasileiro:
um
estudo
entre
professores
do
Ensino
Básico,
Técnico
e
Tecnológico
Adaptación
y
obtención
de
evidencias
para
la
validez
de
la
escala
de
“Sacrificios
Percibidos
Asociados
con
la
Salida
(de
la
organizacíon)”
al
contexto
brasile˜no:
un
estudio
entre
profesores
de
la
Educación
Básica,
Técnica
y
Tecnológica
Renata
Gomes
de
Jesus
a,∗,
Diva
Ester
Okazaki
Rowe
baInstitutoFederaldoEspíritoSanto,Guarapari,ES,Brazil bUniversidadeFederaldaBahia,Salvador,BA,Brazil
Received1September2014;accepted11February2016 Availableonline21October2016
Abstract
Themostwidely-usedmodelinstudiesoforganizationalcommitmentisthethree-dimensionalmodeldevelopedbyMeyerandAllenin1991. Thismodelunderstandstheconstructasbeingcomposedofinstrumental,affective,andnormativedimensions.However,ithasbeencriticizedby researcherswhodonotviewinstrumentalcommitmentasrelatedtotheconceptofcommitment,butinsteadasapossibleorganizationallink.In ordertoaddresstheconceptualandempiricalproblemsoftheinstrument,PowellandMeyerperfectedthesub-scaleofinstrumentalcommitment andrecommendedthatanewscale,namedPerceivedSacrificesAssociatedwithLeaving,beusedinfutureresearch.Thisarticleaimstoadapt andobtainevidenceofthevalidityofthenewscale,andanalyzehowteachersperceivethesacrificesassociatedwithleavingaFederalInstituteof Education,Science,andTechnology.Thescalehasundergonecross-culturaladaptationandtheadaptedversionwasappliedtoteachers.Exploratory FactorAnalysisandConfirmatoryFactorAnalysiswereapplied,displayingevidenceofthevalidityoftheconstructfortheBrazilianversion.The resultsrevealedthatteachersagreeonthehighintensitylevelofthesacrificesassociatedwithleaving,andthatteacherswhooccupymanagement positionsperceiveittoahigherdegreethanothers.Theproposedchangesinthescaleshouldbeevaluatedinfutureresearch,andotherstudiesare importanttoconfirmtheresultsfound.
©2017DepartamentodeAdministrac¸˜ao,FaculdadedeEconomia,Administrac¸˜aoeContabilidadedaUniversidadedeS˜aoPaulo–FEA/USP. PublishedbyElsevierEditoraLtda.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCCBYlicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Keywords:Organizationallink;Organizationalcommitment;Cross-culturaladaptation;Evidenceofvalidity;PerceivedSacrificesAssociatedwithLeavingScale
Resumo
OmodelomaisutilizadonosestudossobreocomprometimentoorganizacionaléomodelotridimensionaldesenvolvidoporMeyereAllenem 1991,queentendemoconstrutocomosendocompostopelasdimensõesinstrumental,afetivaenormativa.Omodelovemrecebendodiversascríticas
∗Correspondingauthor:EstradadaTartaruga,s/n,Guarapari,ES,CEP29215-090,Brazil.
E-mail:[email protected](R.G.Jesus).
PeerReviewundertheresponsibilityofDepartamentodeAdministrac¸ão,FaculdadedeEconomia,Administrac¸ãoeContabilidadedaUniversidadedeSão Paulo–FEA/USP.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rausp.2016.10.002
depesquisadoresparaosquaisocomprometimentoinstrumentalnãodeveserrelacionadonoconceitodecomprometimento,esimcomoumpossível vínculoorganizacional.PowelleMeyer(2004),comointuitodeabordarosproblemasconceituaiseempíricosdoinstrumento,aperfeic¸oaram asubescaladecomprometimentoinstrumentalerecomendamqueanovaescala,denominadaEscaladeSacrifíciosPercebidosAssociadoscom aSaídadaorganizac¸ão,sejausadaempesquisasfuturas.Esteartigotevecomoobjetivoadaptareobterevidênciasdevalidadedanovaescala eanalisarcomoosprofessorespercebemossacrifíciosassociadoscomasaídaemumInstitutoFederaldeEducac¸ão,CiênciaeTecnologia.A escalapassouporprocessodeadaptac¸ãotransculturaleaversãoadaptadafoiaplicadaaosdocentes.OsdadosforamsubmetidosàAnáliseFatorial ExploratóriaeàAnáliseFatorialConfirmatória,confirmandoevidênciasdevalidadedoconstrutoparasuaversãobrasileiranaamostrautilizada. Osresultadosindicamqueosprofessoresconcordamquehásacrifíciosassociadosàsaídaemgrauelevadodeintensidadeequeosprofessoresque ocupamcargosdechefiapercebememgraumaiselevadoqueosdemaisprofessores.Considera-sequeasmodificac¸õespropostasàescaladevam seravaliadasempesquisasfuturas,sendoimportantesoutrosestudosparaconfirmac¸ãodosresultadosencontradosnestapesquisa.
©2017DepartamentodeAdministrac¸˜ao,FaculdadedeEconomia,Administrac¸˜aoeContabilidadedaUniversidadedeS˜aoPaulo–FEA/USP. PublicadoporElsevierEditoraLtda.Este ´eumartigoOpenAccesssobumalicenc¸aCCBY(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Palavras-chave: Vínculoorganizacional;Comprometimentoorganizacional;Adaptac¸ãotranscultural;Evidênciadevalidade;EscaladeSacrifíciosPercebidos AssociadoscomaSaídadaorganizac¸ão
Resumen
ElmodelomásutilizadoenlosestudiossobreelcompromisoorganizacionaleselmodelotridimensionaldesarrolladoporMeyeryAllenen1991, queproponenqueelconstructosecomponededimensionesinstrumental,afectivaynormativayharecibidodiversascríticasdelosinvestigadores quesugierenqueelcompromisoinstrumentalnodebeservistoenelconceptodecompromiso,sinocomounposiblevínculosorganizativos. PowellyMeyer(2004),conelfindeabordarlosproblemasconceptualesyempíricosdelinstrumentoperfeccionaronlasubescaladelcompromiso instrumentalyrecomiendanquelanuevaescala,denominadaEscaladeSacrificioPercibidosAsociadosalaSalidadelaorganización,seautilizada enfuturasinvestigaciones.Esteartículotienecomoobjetivoadaptaryvalidarlanuevaescala.Laescalafuesometidaaprocesodeadaptación cultural.LaversiónadaptadadelinstrumentofueadministradaalosprofesoresdelInstitutoFederaldelEspírituSantoylamuestrapasopor validacióncruzada.Lasmuestrasfueronsometidasaunanálisisfactorialexploratorioyaunanálisisfactorialconfirmatoria,loqueconfirmala validezdeconstructodelaversiónbrasile˜na.Seconsideraqueloscambiospropuestosdebanserevaluadosenfuturasinvestigaciones,siendoque otrosestudiosparaconfirmarlosresultadosencontradossonimportantes.
©2017DepartamentodeAdministrac¸˜ao,FaculdadedeEconomia,Administrac¸˜aoeContabilidadedaUniversidadedeS˜aoPaulo–FEA/USP. PublicadoporElsevierEditoraLtda.Esteesunart´ıculoOpenAccessbajolalicenciaCCBY(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Palabrasclave: VínculoOrganizacional;Compromisoorganizacional;Adaptacióncultural;Evidenciadevalidez;EscaladeSacrificiosPercibidosAsociadoscon laSalidadelaOrganización
Introduction
Thestudy of thebondsestablished byindividualsisfocus on different fields of study, such as Philosophy, Sociology, Psychology, and Administration. According to Siqueira and Gomide(2014),whereasPhilosophyanalyzesthebondsbased onsocial cooperation,Sociologyclaims that thesebondscan be explained by social and economic theory and by the principleof reciprocity.In Psychology,therearetwo compo-nents used to explain the bonds established by individuals: one explains the bonds by means of affective links, andthe other attempts to explain them with identification theories, categorization, and social comparison, and by the inequality principle.
In Administration, the study of bonds is a focus of the Organizational Behaviorfield. Thisinterestisjustifiedbythe factthatadeeperunderstandingoftheoriginsanddynamicsof theestablishedbondsbetweenemployeesandorganizationhas clearconsequencesinmanagement.Moreover,itsinfluencecan beseeninhowtheorganizationformulatesitshumanresource managementpolicies andpractices(Bastos,Maia,Rodrigues, Macambira, & Borges-Andrade, 2014). Kramer and Faria (2007)statethatindividuals’behaviorwithintheorganization relatesdirectlytothe bondsestablished betweenthem.Thus, explaininghowbondsareformed,identifyingtheimplications
for the internal structure of the individual and for his/her development and behavior, have been considered the main challenges facing the scholars on the subject (Siqueira & Gomide, 2014). In Brazil, according toBastos et al.(2014), themoststudiedbondamongresearchersofthefieldof Orga-nizationalBehaviorisorganizationalcommitment,aconstruct that hasits originsprior tothe 1980s,although it wasinthat decadethatthestudyofthesubjectfirstgainedprominencein Brazil.
It was during this same period that Mowday, Steers, and Porter(1979)developedthefirstmodeloftheconstruct, defin-ing organizational commitment as a strength related to the identification and involvement of the worker with the orga-nization, characterized by the agreement with organizational goals andvalues, andthe desire toremain amember andto put forth effort for the organization. Theseauthors proposed anone-dimensionalmodelusingtheaffectivebasistomeasure commitmenttotheorganization.
– which views the commitment as an individual’s sense of responsibilitytotheorganization,totheextentthathe/shefeels obligedtoremain withthe organization becausehe/she owes it.
The three-dimensionalmodel, however,has received criti-cism.RodriguesandBastos(2010)arguethatthecontinuance commitmentmustbeseenasapossiblebondbetweenthe indi-vidualandtheorganization,butitshouldnotbeassociatedwith the concept of commitment. With the aim of addressing the shortcomingsof the existing side-bets measures, Powell and Meyer(2004)improvedtwomeasures:thecontinuance commit-mentscaleofMeyerandAllen(1991)andmeasuresofside-bets ofShore,Tetrick,Shore,andBarksdale(2000).Regardingthe three-dimensionalmodel,PowellandMeyer(2004)proposeto havedevelopedamorereliablemetricmeasureofcontinuance commitment, calledScale of Perceived Sacrifices Associated withLeaving,recommending thatit shouldbe used infuture researchconcernedwiththismodel.
Since the original instrument was developed in English, to allow its application in the Brazilian context, it is neces-sarythat thescalebetranslatedintoBrazilianPortugueseand culturally adapted. Theobjective of this study wasto cultur-ally adapt the Scale of Perceived Sacrifices Associated with Leavingproposedby Powell andMeyer(2004)for Brazilian Portuguese, sinceno study using thisscalewas found inthe country.Becausethescalewillbeusedasaninstrumentto eval-uatetheconstructamongteachersofthefederalpublicservice, it wasalso necessary toadapt it tothe characteristics of this career.
Thisarticle isorganizedas follows:after thisintroductory sectionwewillexposethetheoreticalframeworkonthetopics covered.Next,wewilldescribethemethodadoptedfor adapta-tionofthescaleandthepre-testversion.Finally,wepresentthe instrumentadaptedtotheBraziliancontext.
Theoreticalframework
Inthissection,themaintheoreticalconceptsrelatedtothe researcharepresented.Thissegmentbeginswithanexposition ofthethree-dimensionalmodeloforganizationalcommitment, focusingonthe instrumentalbase,whichistheobjectof this study.Itendswithanoverviewofthemainmethodsofadapting scales.
Thethree-dimensionalmodeloforganizationalcommitment
Ineveryday use,commitmentmayberelatedtothe orien-tation of the individual, his/her personal dedication, and the individualsandgroupstowhomanemployeeisattached.These twocomponentsaretreatedintheliterature,respectively,asthe basesandfociofthecommitment.Thereisavarietyofforms ofworkcommitmentbeinganalyzed,consideringthe various foci(organization,career,job,union)andtheirbases(affective, normative,andcontinuance).
Rodrigues and Bastos (2010) indicate a predominance of Meyer and Allen’s (1991) three-dimensional model on the research agenda on organizational commitment. The model
proposedbyMeyerandAllen (1991)wasanattempt to inte-gratethedifferentone-dimensionalconceptsoforganizational commitment,sinceforthemtherewasacommonelementinall settings–thecommitmentbindstheindividualtoacourseof action.Despitethisconvergence,theconceptsdifferwithregard tothe characterization of the commitment(Powell &Meyer, 2004).
MeyerandAllen(1991)conceptualizecommitmentinthree approachesandclaimthattheseapproacheshaveasacommon denominatorthefactthattheyviewcommitmentasa psycho-logical state that can characterize the employee–organization relationship,andwhichhasimplicationsforthedecisionto con-tinueornotbeingamemberoftheorganization.Fortheauthors, whatdistinguishesthedimensionsisthat
Affective commitment refers tothe employee’s emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization. Employees with a strong affective commit-ment continue employment withthe organization because theywanttodoso.Continuancecommitmentreferstoan awarenessof the costsassociated withleavingthe organi-zation. Employeeswhose primary link totheorganization isbasedon continuancecommitmentremain becausethey
needtodoso.Finally,normativecommitmentreflectsa feel-ingofobligationtocontinueemployment.Employeeswitha highlevelofnormativecommitmentfeelthattheyoughtto remainwiththeorganization.(Meyer&Allen,1991Meyer &Allen,1991,p.67).
The three components are developed in different ways to havedifferentimplicationsforthebehaviorofindividuals.The antecedents of continuance commitmentare not clearly indi-catedintheliterature(Siqueira&Gomide,2014),butaccording toPowellandMeyer(2004),itisexpectedthatthisdevelopsin responsetoconditionsthatincreasethecostofleavingthe orga-nization,whereasforaffectivecommitment,itisexpectedthat itarisesduetoexperiencesatwork,suchasscopeofworkand organizational support. However, the normative commitment tendstodevelopinresponse tosocialpressureandit hastwo main mechanisms of development: socialization experiences andreciprocityoforganizationalinvestments.
For Powell and Meyer (2004),with respect tothe conse-quences, affective andnormativecommitmenttend tohavea positiveeffectondesiredbehaviorsasperformanceand behav-ioroforganizationalcitizenship,withtheeffectoftheformer strongerthanthelatter.Nevertheless,thecontinuance commit-mentpresentsnegativeimpactonthesebehaviors.Powelland Meyer(2004)alsopointoutthatdifferentstudieshaveprovided supportforseveraloftheearlypredictions,butitisnecessary asystematicinvestigation ofthe developmentof instrumental commitment.
Theinstrumentalcommitmentandtheside-bettheory
activity. Inthe caseof organizationalcommitment, according toPowell andMeyer (2004),the consistentline is tostay in business.Therefore,accordingtoBecker(1960),forfull under-standingof the commitment, it is necessary a valueanalysis system,inwhichthelateralexchangeoccurs(sidebets).
Becker(1960)proposesthatlateralexchangescanoccurin differentways:(a)theindividual canmake lateralexchanges, due to widespread cultural expectations or to expectations of important groups concerning what constitutes responsible behavior,involvingpenaltiesforviolatingthem;(b)bymeansof impersonalbureaucraticarrangements,whicharerulesor poli-ciesimplementedbytheorganizationtoencourageorrewardthe employeeinthelongrun;(c)theconcernwithself-presentation, manifestedwhen apersontriestopresentaconsistentpublic imagethatrequiresparticularbehavior;(d)theindividual sett-ings for corporate positions, whichrefer to the efforts of an individualtoadapttoasituation,andwhichontheotherhand makeitlesssuitableforothers;and(e)externalconcerns relat-ingtolateralchangesmadeoutsidetheorganization,suchasan employee’s establishment of ties withthe community, which would be interruptedif he/she left the organization andwas forcedtoseekemploymentinanothergeographicallocation.
PowellandMeyer(2004)describethatthefirstempiricaltest ofBecker’stheorywasconductedin1969byRitzerandTrice, whodevelopedaquestionnaireinwhichparticipantsdiscussed theirintentionstoleavetheorganizationandtheirincentivesto doso.PowellandMeyer(2004)alsocitetheresearchbyMcGee andFord(1987),whoconductedafactoranalysisofinstrumental commitmentandidentifiedtwointerpretablefactors:Perceived SacrificesAssociatedwithLeaving,andlackofalternatives.The firstfactorisconsideredbyMcGeeandFord(1987)astheclosest visionofcommitmentpresentedbythetheoryofsidebets.The secondfactor,lackofalternatives,wasconsideredbyAllenand Meyer(2000)asanantecedentofcontinuancecommitmentand notapartoftheconstructitself.
CohenandLowenberg(1990)contendedthat theresultsof previousstudiesallowgeneralizedconclusionsaboutBecker’s theory,andthroughameta-analysistheyexaminedpast perfor-manceofrelevantcorrelationaldatafrom50publishedstudies onlateralexchanges.Theresultsshowedthatthesidebet vari-ables have low correlation with organizational commitment, allowingtheconclusionthatthereislittleempiricalsupportfor thetheoryoflateralexchange.Rodrigues andBastos(2011a), inordertocriticizethedimensionalityofthecontinuance com-mitment,highlighttheproblemsof validityandmeasurement reliability,sincetheresultsof differentstudiesare conflicting andbecausethescalemeasures,inadditiontocommitment,one ofitscontributingfactors,namelylackofalternatives.Solinger, Olffen,andRoe(2008)suggestthatthe continuance commit-mentshouldbeseenasanantecedentofcommitmentandnotas oneofitsdimensions.
Attempts to resolve the conceptual empirical problems on organizational commitment are diverse, with researchers suggesting that the construct should be considered one-dimensional(Solingeretal., 2008;Klein, Molloy,&Cooper, 2009;Rodrigues&Bastos,2010),ortwo-dimensional(Cohen, 2007).Theresearcherswhoadvocatetheone-dimensionalityof
organizationalcommitmentclaimthattheaffectivedimension is what most characterizes the construct and that the other bases – normative and continuance – measure distinct com-mitmentbonds, forexamplethe overlapbetweencontinuance commitmentandtheconstructoforganizationalentrenchment (Rodrigues&Bastos,2011a).However,Cohen(2007)proposed thatorganizationalcommitmenthastwodimensions: instrumen-talandaffective.
Withtheaimofaddressingtheshortcomingsoftheexisting side-betmeasures,PowellandMeyer(2004)maderefinements ontwomeasures,basedonliteraturereview:thescaleof con-tinuancecommitment,andmeasuresofside-betsofShoreetal. (2000).PowellandMeyer(2004)begantherefinementby creat-ing,preliminarily,anexpandedandmorereliableversionofthe factor ofPerceived Sacrifices AssociatedwithLeaving,since theoriginalonehadfewitemsandlowerreliabilitythan desir-able(α=70).Theyalso madesomeadjustments tothe extent
ofthesidebet,reviewingsomeitemsanddevelopingnewones insomecategories inordertomake cleardistinctionsamong the categories of side bet, especially for generalizedcultural expectationsandself-presentationconcerns.
TheothergoalofPowellandMeyer’sresearch(2004)was to test the theory of side bets within the broader context of MeyerandAllen’sthree-dimensionalmodel.Theresultsprovide strongsupportforBecker’stheory,becausethemeasuresofall five categoriescorrelatedsignificantlywiththeperceived sac-rifice factorassociatedwithleavingandwiththe intentionto change. Italso supportstheargument that theremaybeboth socialandeconomiccostsassociatedwithleavingthe organi-zation,andthatsomeoftheleavingcostscomefromsidebets external tothe workplace, such as investmentsinfamilyand communitythathindertheexit.Bureaucraticarrangementsand individual settings contribute tothe economic costs,whereas expectationsandconcernsaboutself-presentationaresocialin nature.
Itwasalsofoundthatsatisfactionwithworkingconditions – a factor more associated with affective commitment – is also perceivedas acostof exit.Finally,theperceived lackof alternativesalsocorrelatessignificantlywithcontinuance com-mitment.PowellandMeyer(2004)pointoutthatthesidebets whichreflectsocialcostsaremorestronglycorrelatedwiththe normativecommitmentthanwithcontinuancecommitment.
Regardingthethree-dimensionalmodel,PowellandMeyer (2004)claimtohavedevelopedamorereliablemeasureofthe factor“perceivedsacrificesassociatedwithleaving”,and high-lightthatthecontinuancecommitmentscaleistwo-dimensional; subscalesofthe“perceivedsacrificefactorassociatedwith leav-ing”and“lackofalternatives”reflect distinct,thoughrelated, constructs.PowellandMeyer(2004)alsorecommendthatthe measureofsixitemsofthefactorof“perceivedSacrifices Asso-ciatedwithLeaving”beusedinfutureresearchconcernedwith thethree-dimensionalmodel.
Methods
twooptions:(a)developanewmeasure;or(b)modifyameasure alreadyvalidatedinanotherlanguage,followingaprocessof cul-turaladaptation(Guillemin,Bombardier,&Beaton,1993).The goalofalinguisticvalidationprocessistoobtainatranslation ofaninstrumenttoanotherlanguagethatisbothconceptually equivalentandeasilyunderstoodbythepeopleof thecountry wherethequestionnairewillbeapplied.
TheinstrumentproposedbyPowellandMeyer(2004)has notbeen validated inBrazilyet, andsinceit was formulated inEnglish,itrequirestranslationandculturaladaptationforits psychometricpropertiestobeevaluatedinthe Brazilian con-text.In aliterature review of methods totranslatequality of lifescalesrelatedtohealthpublished between1966andMay 2005,Acquadro, Conway, Hareendran, and Aaronson(2008) found17procedures.Ofthose,onlythreeareanalyzedbythe authors,thesebeingtheonlyonesthatwerenotdevelopedfor aparticular instrumentandthatcanbeappliedtoanytypeof scale.
ThefirstmethodpresentedwasproposedbyGuilleminetal. (1993)andBeaton,Bombardier,Guillemin,andFerraz(2000), and is divided into five stages: (a) translation; (b) synthesis oftranslations;(c)back-translationbyqualifiedpersonnel;(d) expertreviewcommittee;and(e)pre-testforequivalenceusing propertechniques.Theauthorsalsosuggestthesubmissionof documentationtothescaledevelopersorcoordinating commit-teeforevaluationoftheadaptationprocess.Thesecondmethod, developedbytheMAPIResearchInstitute,issimilartothat pro-posedbyBeatonetal.(2000),butaddsastepcalledInternational Harmonization, wherethe original questionnaireistranslated intoseverallanguagessimultaneouslyaftertestingthepre-final version(Acquadroetal.,2008).Thelastmethodpresentedisthe oneproposedbySwaine-Verdier,Doward,Hagell,Thorsen,and McKenna(2004),whoarguethatthereisnoevidencethatthe methodoftranslationandbacktranslationcanbeconsideredthe bestmethodfor culturaladaptation,whichiswhytheauthors proposeanalternativemethodthatusesdouble-conversion pan-els.
Theproposedmethodemphasizestheaccuracyofthe trans-lation,donebyseveralindependent translators(fivetoseven) withvaryingprofiles,andworkingasateam.Fromthereview, Acquadroetal.(2008)concludethatresearchersmustchoose to adopt approaches with different stages as a guarantee for quality.ConsideringthatthemethodofGuilleminetal.(1993) andBeaton etal. (2000) has the characteristics indicatedby Acquadroetal.(2008),andbecausetranslationintolanguages otherthanBrazilianPortugueseisnotrequired,wedecidedto usethemethodproposedbyGuilleminetal.(1993)andBeaton etal.(2000).
Manzi-Oliveira, Balarini, Marques, and Pasian (2011) suggestthatarticleswhosepurposeistheadaptationof psycho-logicalassessmentinstrumentsshouldpresenttheirprocedures (in addition to translation, the analysis of the accuracy, and validityofthemeasure).Forthisreason,theprocessof transla-tionandadaptationofthescaleandobtainingevidenceoftheir validity in the Brazilian contextfor the sample used will be detailed.
Measure
WetranslatedandadaptedthescaledevelopedbyPowelland Meyer followingthe procedure proposed byGuillemin etal. (1993)andBeatonetal.(2000).Thescaleconsistsofsixitems withafive-pointLikert formatindicatingdifferentdegreesof agreementwiththestatements.
One of the authors of this paper conducted a translation, which was compared to the translation done by a translator withadegreeinEnglishLiterature,andtheversiontranslated by a Psychology research group.After the evaluation of the translations,apreliminaryversionsynthesizedfromthe three draftwasdeveloped.Initem1,wechosetoreplacethephrase “work somewhere else” with “get out of this organization,” giventhat the teacher of apublic school,when workingina arrangementof20or40hperweek,mighthavemorethanone job.
Afterdrawingupthepreliminaryversionforthetranslation ofthescale,aback-translationwascarriedout,i.e.the transla-tionofthepreliminaryversionintotheoriginallanguage,done bytranslatorsunawareofthecontentoftheoriginalinstrument noroftheindependenttranslations,andwhoarebefluentinboth languagesandhaveknowledgeofcolloquialformsofthe origi-nallanguageversion(Beatonetal.,2000).Thisstepverifiesthat thepreliminaryversionreflectsthecontentoftheoriginalscale. Followingtheseguidelines,theback-translationsweremadeby two independentBraziliantranslators,onehaving adegreein EnglishandtheotherhavingadegreeinEnglishandworkingas anEnglishtoPortugueseinterpreterinCanada,homecountry ofthetranslatedscale.Backtranslationsdisplayedasatisfactory approximationtotheoriginalversion,reflectingitscontentsand intentions.
In the third step of the process of translation and adapta-tion,areportwiththeresultsofthepreviousstepswassentto areviewcommitteemadeupoffiveresearchers:threefromthe fieldofAdministrationandtwofromthefieldofPsychology. Ascommitteemembers,theresearchersassessedtheclarity, rel-evance, andequivalenceof thetranslateditems,followingthe recommendationsofBeatonetal.(2000).Afterexaminingthe suggestionsmadebythiscommittee,anewversionwasdrafted andunderwentPortuguesereview.
The fourthstageisthe pre-testingof thescale,whichwas conducted using theonline tool SurveyMonkey®.An e-mail withaninvitationtoattendthepre-test,indicatingtheInternet addresswherethequestionnairewasavailable,wassentto tea-chersattheInstitutoFederaldoMatoGrosso(IFMT),Instituto FederaldaBahia(IFBA),andInstitutoFederalBaiano (IFBa-iano). The invitation was alsosent to someresearchers from otherinstitutionsofhighereducation,sothattheycouldassess theclarityandunderstandingoftheitems.Twenty-twoteachers answeredtheinstrumentonlineandfiveresearchersevaluated andcommentedontheitems(debriefing).
toaddsomeexamplesthatcouldbetakenintoaccountbythe respondents.
Sample
The finalversionof the questionnaire wasmade available throughtheonlinetoolSurveyMonkey®,andthelinktoaccess it andthe invitationmessagewere sent byelectronic mailto the 1191 teachers of the Instituto Federaldo Espírito Santo, out of which415 teachers completed the questionnaireafter agreeingtotheTermsofConsent.Thesamplehadameanage of 28.48 (SD=18.28) andthe average timeof service atthe schoolwas4.42years(SD=8.61);67.47%weremale,67.47% married,48.19%hadaMaster’sDegree,and77.59%were full-timeemployeesoftheschool.
Inthisstudy,itwasdecidedtoconductthecross-validation procedures. Thedatabase was divided intotwo samples, ran-domlyselected:Sample1included208teachers,andSample2 included207teachers.
Procedures
In a bibliographical survey on cross-cultural adaptation studies of psychological assessment instruments in Brazil, Manzi-Oliveiraetal.(2011)foundthat60%ofthestudiesthey examinedconductedananalysisofvalidityoftheadaptationof theinstrument.Thisamountisconsideredlowascomparedto theimportanceofsuchananalysis,whichprovidesevidenceand atheoreticalbasisforitsintendeduse.
Oneofthemostimportantdataanalysismethodsinthe vali-dation process of an instrumentis the factor analysis.It is a multivariatetechniqueusedinordertosynthesizetheobserved relationshipsbetweenasetofinter-relatedvariables,andthus, identify commonfactors(Fávero,Belfiore,daSilva, &Chan, 2009).
Hair,Black,Babin,Anderson,andTatham(2009)statethat, inthismethod,theminimumnumberofobservationsinthe sam-pleshouldbe100.Inaddition,thesamplemustuseaminimumof 5timesmoreobservationsthanthenumberofdatabasevariables, andtherecommendednumberis10observationspervariable. Theinstrumentdiscussedinthisarticleiscomposedofsixitems andweobtained415observations;therefore,thedatabasemeets therequirement.However,othercriteriamustbemetfortheuse of factoranalysis.Theremustbesufficient correlationvalues betweenthehighvariabletojustifythe useofthistechnique. Moreover,the observedcorrelationsbetweenvariablescanbe reducedbydeviationsinthenormalrangeandlinearity,whichis harmfultothesolution(Hairetal.,2009).Thislastassumption iscontestedbyPasquali (2004),forwhomthe factoranalysis isrobusttoviolationsofnormality.Initialanalysesshowedthat thesampledatamettheconditionsforproceedingtothefactor analysis(Pasquali,2004;Tabachnick&Fidell,2007;Hairetal., 2009).
Afterobtainingevidenceof thevalidity ofthe psychomet-ricpropertiesofthescale,weperformedadescriptivestatistical analysisandtestsofdifferencesamongmeans,throughStudent’s
t-testandone-wayanalysis ofvariance (ANOVA)inorderto
evaluatethedifferencesbetweensegmentsofthesample (gen-der, maritalstatus,age,timeofservice attheschool,training level, trainingarea,campus,andholdingamanagement posi-tionornot).Anydifferencesthatpresentedapvaluelowerthan 0.05wereconsideredstatisticallysignificant.
Resultsanddiscussion
Inthissection,wepresenttheresultsofobtainingevidence ofthevalidityofthescaleintheBraziliancontext,andthenwe analyzeanddiscusstheresults.
Obtainingevidencesofthevalidityofthepsychometric
propertiesofthescale
Weperformedexploratoryfactoranalysisthroughthe Prin-cipalAxisFactorwitheigenvaluemorethan1.Aboutthechoice oftherotationmethod,Hairetal.(2009)claimthatthereisnota specificrule,butthemethoddefinitionshouldbemadein accor-dance withthe particular needs of the researchproblem. For Hairetal.(2009),theorthogonalrotationshouldbeemployed whentheobjectiveistoreducethenumberoforiginalvariables or whenwewanttoreduceagreaternumberofvariablesinto a smaller setof uncorrelatedvariables for subsequent usein regressionorotherpredictionrules.Obliquerotationisusedto obtaintheoreticallysignificantfactors.Thistypeofrotation rep-resentsthegroupingofvariableswithgreateraccuracy.Forthe sakeofthisresearch,weoptedfortheobliquerotationmethod (Oblimin).
Theresulthadthesameoriginalstructurewithone dimen-sionofsixitems.Theone-dimensionalityoftheconstructwas confirmedbygraphicalanalysisoftheScreePlot(Fig.1).
However, sincethe identificationof the number of factors becomes confusedincaseswherethecutoff pointis notvery clear,itrendersthechoiceofthenumberoffactorstoberetained subjectiveandambiguous(Hayton,Allen,&Scarpello,2004), so we also executedthe Parallel Analysis Method – Optimal
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
Eigen
v
a
lue
0.5
0.0
1 2
Inflection point
Number of factors
3 4 5 6
Fig.1. ScreePlottodeterminethenumberoffactorsoftheScaleofPerceived SacrificesAssociatedwithLeaving.
Table1
Psychometricpropertiesforthemodelofsixandfouritems.
Model1(sixitems) Model2(fouritems)
Sample1 Sample2 Sample1 Sample2
KMO 0.837 0.84 0.787 0.79
Totalvarianceexplained 49.71% 49.65% 62.74% 62.94%
Cronbach’salpha 0.783 0.783 0.8 0.802
Source:Researchdatabase.
ImplementationofParallelAnalysis(Timmerman& Lorenzo-Seva,2011). Weperformed afactoranalysis using FACTOR 10.03.01software,andtheParallelAnalysisindicatedasingle factor,confirmingtheresultsfoundinotheranalyzes.
The correlation matrix has a determinant of 0.192, KMO=0.837,allowingtheapplicationoffactoranalysis.The significanceleveloftheBartletttestofsphericity(sig.<0.001) leads to the rejection of the hypothesis that the correlation matrix isthe identity, indicating thereforethat thereare cor-relations among variables which support the use of factor analysis.Thefactorexplains49.71%ofthetotalvariance,and weobtainedCronbach’salpha(α)equalto0.783,asatisfactory
value.Regardingthestructure,thesamewasrevealedin Sam-ple2,whichshowedthedeterminantequal0.197,KMO=0.84, sig.<0.001andα=0.783. The factorexplains49.65%of the
totalvariance.
TheMeasureofSamplingAdequacy(MSA)isgreaterthan 0.5forallvariablesinbothsamples,whichindicatesthatnone ofthevariableseventuallydeservetobeeliminated.However, inSample1,intheanalysisofthecommonalities,theHS1item (“Ihaveinvestedtoomuchtimeinthisorganizationtoconsider workingelsewhere.”)presentsavaluelowerthan0.5(0.404), whichsuggeststhatitshouldbeextractedfromthescale.After anewextractionoffactors,HS6item(“Icontinuetoworkfor thisorganization becauseIdon’tbelieveanotherorganization couldofferthebenefitsIhavehere.”)showedcommonalityof less than0.5(0.462)andso itwas alsoextracted. Again, we realizedtheexploratoryfactoranalysis,nowwithfouritems,and weobtainedKMO=0.787,sig.<0.0001,andMSAgreaterthan 0.5forallvariables. Allitems showed commonalitiesgreater than0.5.Thefactorexplains62.74%ofthetotalvarianceand weobtainedα=0.8.
ThecommonalitiesofanalysisforSample2hadvaluesbelow 0.5forHS1andHS6(0.274and0.336,respectively),confirming the results obtained with the analysis of Sample 1 regarding theelimination ofitems. Exploratory factoranalysiswiththe exclusionoftheitemsrevealedKMO=0.79,sig.<0.0001and MSSgreaterthan0.5forallvariables.Allitemsshowed com-monalitiesgreaterthan0.5.Thefactorexplains62.94%ofthe totalvarianceandweobtainedCronbach’salphaequalto0.802. Table1summarizes themainpsychometricpropertiesforthe modelwithsixandfouritems.
Forbothmodels,thereliabilityof theinstrumentishigher thantheoriginalversion,similartotheresultsfoundbyPowell andMeyer(2004),whichreinforcestheauthors’suggestionthat thethree-dimensionalmodelbeusedinresearch.Ascanbeseen, themodeloffouritemspresentspsychometricpropertiesbetter
thantheinitialmodelsforbothsampleswithsixitems,revealing alargerreliabilityandconsiderablyincreasedexplanation.For thisreason,despitepossiblelimitationstothestudy,weopted, becauseofthebestpsychometricproperties,fortheextraction ofthetwoitems.1
Descriptiveanalysisoftheresults
Theteachersofthesamplehaveahigher-than-average per-ceptionof thesacrificesassociated withleaving(Mean=3.44 and Standard Deviation=1.89). In order to check for differ-ences between the averagesof perceptions amongsubgroups ofthesample,wecomparedthemeansforindependentsamples usinganindependentt-testbasedongender,andamongteachers whoholdmanagementpositions(coordinationordirection)and thosewhodonot,andANOVA,basedonmaritalstatus,age, averagetimeof service attheschool, levelof education,and campus(Table2).
The results of the Student’s t-test and ANOVA indi-cated no significant differences in gender (sig.=0.067 and eta squared=0.008); marital status (sig.=0.87 and eta squared=0.03); age (sig.=0.762 and eta squared=0.001); average time of service at the school (sig.=0.161 and eta squared=0.08); level of education (sig.=0.103 and eta squared=0.02); and campus (sig.=0.558 and eta squared=0.04), demonstrating that the perception of the sacrificesassociatedwithleavingisindependentofthese char-acteristics in the sample studied. Despite the non-significant differenceidentifiedbetweenmaleandfemale,wecanobserve thatthemeanoffemales(3.58)ishigherthanthemeanofmales (3.37),confirmingthetendencyindicatedbyMathieuandZajac (1990)thatfemalesaremorecommittedthanmales.Thesame canbe saidwithregard tomarital status,accordingtowhich singlepeoplehavethelowestperceptionofsacrificesassociated withtheleaving.
Fromthecomparisonsofmeansmade,wefoundstatistically significant differences onlybetween teacherswho hold man-agementpositionsandthosewhodonot(sig.=0.034andeta squared=0.001).Theteachersinmanagementpositionsdisplay aperceptionofsacrificesassociated withleavingwithgreater intensitythantheteacherswhoworkonlyintheacademicarea. Table 3 shows the means of the indicators that make up the construct.
1 Theoriginalversionof theitems ofthescale andthefinalversion(in
Table2
Means of perception of sacrifice associated with the leaving by personal characteristics.
Variable % Meanofperceptionof sacrificesassociated withleaving
Gender
Male 67.47 3.37
Female 32.53 3.58
Maritalstatus
Single 22.89 3.30
Married 67.47 3.39
Widow(er) 0.48 3.38
Separated/divorced 6.51 3.41
Others 2.65 3.41
Age
Upto25 27.23 3.50
Between26and35 30.12 3.40 Morethan36 42.65 3.42
Averagetimeofserviceattheschool
Lessthan5years 68.43 3.41 Between5and10years 18.56 3.33 Morethan10years 13.01 3.22
Levelofeducation
Graduation 6.75 3.24 Specialization 19.28 3.39 Master’sdegree 48.19 3.35 Doctoratedegree 25.54 3.43 Postdoctoral 0.24 2.25
Campus
Campus1 4.58 3.74
Campus2 3.61 3.28
Campus3 6.02 3.45
Campus4 2.89 3.38
Campus5 6.26 3.45
Campus6 6.51 3.41
Campus7 4.34 3.25
Campus8 7.23 3.45
Campus9 4.58 3.39
Campus10 2.41 3.45
Campus11 4.10 3.51
Campus12 6.26 3.30
Campus13 4.10 3.09
Campus14 9.16 3.39
Campus15 5.06 3.43
Campus16 2.89 3.13
Campus17 20.00 3.28
Managementposition
Yes 19.76 3.52a
No 80.24 3.33
Source:Researchdatabase.
ap<0.05.
Among the means presented,we highlightthe differences betweenthemeansoftheHS4indicator.Thiscanbeexplained bythefactthattheteacherswhoareinmanagementpositions havegreaterbenefitswhentheirbonusesaretakenintoaccount, andalsobythepossiblelossofstatusintheeventofleavingthe organization.
Wecanalsoseethattheonlyindicatorinwhichthe percep-tionof sacrificeassociated withtheleavingisperceived with
Table3
Meansofindicatorsofperceptionofsacrificeassociatedwiththeleaving– managementposition.
Indicator Having management position
Nothaving management position
HS2:Leavingthis organizationnowwould requireconsiderable personalsacrifice.
3.82 3.44
HS3:Formepersonally,the costsofleavingthis organizationwouldbefar greaterthanthebenefits.
3.61 3.45
HS4:Iwouldnotleavethis organizationbecauseof whatIwouldstandtolose.
3.95 3.53
HS5:IfIdecidedtoleavethis organization,toomuchof mylifewouldbedisrupted.
2.70 2.91
Source:Researchdatabase.
greater intensity bythoseteachers whodo nothold manage-mentpositionsisHS5, demonstratingtheconcern ofteachers withthepossiblesetbacktotheircareers.
Conclusionsandrecommendations
Thethree-dimensionalmodeloforganizationalcommitment proposedbyMeyerandAllen(1991)isthemostwidely-used inresearchoncommitment,althoughithasreceivedmuch criti-cismregardingconceptualandempiricalproblems.Oneofthese problemsistheconsiderationthattheinstrumentalcommitment should not beconsideredone of thedimensions of organiza-tional commitment. In order torefine the model, Powelland Meyer (2004)developedascale regardedas morereliableto measuretheinstrumentalcommitment,theScale ofPerceived SacrificesAssociatedwithLeaving,whichhasnotbeenusedin Braziluntilthepresentstudy.
The aim of this article was to translate, adapt and obtain evidence of the validity of the scale in the Brazilian con-text, astheauthors recommendits useinresearchemploying the three-dimensional model (Powell & Meyer, 2004), and its translation and adaptation is essential for this scale to be used among Brazilian workers. Moreover, we analyzed how teachers perceive the sacrifices associated with leaving a position at a Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology.
ConfirmatoryFactorAnalysisinwhichallfit indexesshowed satisfactoryvalues,confirmingthatthemodelwithfouritemsis appropriate.Regardingtheseresults,wecanconcludethat tea-chersparticipatinginthisstudypositivelyperceivethesacrifices associatedwithleaving,sincethemeanlevelwashigher than themidpoint.Marques,Borges,Morais,andSilva(2014),ina survey conductedamong civilservantsof Minas Gerais,also foundhighlevelsof instrumentalcommitmentinthesample. Thisresultcanbeexplainedbythefactthatpublicservants,such astheteachersinthissample,considerstabilitytobeoneofthe importantfactorsbehindremainingintheorganization.Similar resultswerefoundbyBotelhoandPaiva(2011),whoconducted researchamongpublicservantsoftheCourtofJusticeofMinas Gerais.Theyfoundthat stabilitywas themainreasonfor the permanenceoftheworkersintheinstitutionstudied.Similarly, RochaandHonório(2015)reportedstability,freedom,andthe tranquilityofworkinginthepublicsectorasaspectslinkedto theinstrumentaldimension.
Whencomparingthemeanbetweenteacherswhohold man-agementpositionsandtheothers,wefoundthatteacherswith management positions perceive a higher degree of sacrifices associatedwithleaving.Thisresultcanbeexplainedbythefact thatteacherswithmanagementpositionshavemoretolosethan theothers,bothintermsoffinancialrewardsandnon-financial losses–inthespecificcase,thestatusquoposition.Thisresultis alignedwithLeite’sfindings(2007),whoidentifiedthat work-ers incommissioned functionshave ahigher intensity of the instrumentalcomponentofthecommitmentthanotherworkers. Hefoundthattheoccupancyofcommissionedfunctionamong publicservantsofUniversidadeFederaldaBahiahadthehighest predictivevalueofinstrumentalcommitmentwhencomparedto gender,maritalstatus,areaofexpertise,andexclusivebondwith theorganization.
Among the participants of this research, the teachers not occupying management positions had a higher intensity of instrumental commitment only on the indicator that relates career plantolosses duetothe decision toleave the organi-zation(HS5:IfIdecidedtoleavethisorganization,toomuch ofmylifewouldbedisrupted.).Inthe institutionstudied,the careerplanandcareerprogressionisclearlydefinedandknown byallemployees,whichmayhaveledtoaperceptionofahigh degreeofintensityofthisHumanResourceManagementpolicy forteacherswithnomanagerialrole.Thisinturnmayhaveled toagreater intensity intheperception of sacrificeassociated withtheleaving,sincetheperceptionofHumanResource Man-agementpoliciesisconsideredtobeoneoftheantecedentsof theorganizationalcommitment(Legge,2005;Demo,Martins, &Roure,2013;Jesus&Rowe,2015).
TheversionoftheScaleofPerceivedSacrificesAssociated withLeavingtranslatedintoBrazilianPortugueseshowedgood psychometricpropertieswhenappliedtothetwosamples. How-ever,theproposedchangesshouldbeevaluatedsincethesample was composedof individuals with homogeneous characteris-ticsfromthesameorganization.So,furtherstudiestoconfirm theresultsfoundarecritical.Thisstudywasconductedamong teachersofaFederalInstituteofEducation,Scienceand Tech-nology,inwhichteachersworkindifferentlevelsofeducation,
from highschool tograduateschool.That openspossibilities of reapplicationof the scaleinarangeof university teachers andalsoinothercategories,suchasprofessionalsinthecreative industry.
We suggest that the one-dimensional scale be preferably used in conjunction with other scales, such as the affective organizationalcommitmentscale.Itcanalsobeaddedtothe nor-mativecommitmentscale.Currently,thequantitativeresearch on organizationalcommitmentinvolving affective and instru-mentalscaleshavelinkedcommitmenttoothervariablessuch asHumanResourceManagementpoliciesandperceived organi-zationaljustice,whichingeneralhavescaleswithlargenumbers ofitems,makingthesurveylongandtiringfortherespondent. In thiscontext,we emphasizethe importanceof ascalewith fouritems,whichallowstheinclusionofseveralothervariables infutureresearch.
Therelevanceofthisarticleisthatthecross-cultural adapta-tiontakesintoaccounttheculturaldifferencesamongcountries, making it possible to compare the object of study among countries, allowing the exchange of information within the international scientific community. The cross-cultural adap-tation performed in this study ensured that the instrument’s measurementaspectsarereliableandundistortedforBrazilian socioculturalreality,asitsoughttofollowcertain methodologi-calseverities.
Thestudiesaimingatthesystematicresearchonthe devel-opmentof instrumentalcommitmentandontheirantecedents areconsideredbyPowellandMeyer(2004)andSiqueiraand Gomide(2014),tobeagapinthestudiesonorganizational com-mitment,consideringthatmostofthe researchfocusesonthe affectivedimensionofcommitment.Theimportanceoffurther studiesonthisdimensionoforganizationalcommitmentliesin thefactthatittendstohavenegativeeffectsondesiredbehaviors totheworker(Powell&Meyer,2004).
Thisstudyopensupotherfutureprospects,suchas analyz-ingtherelationshipofthenewinstrumentscalewithvariableof HumanResourceManagementpolicies,organizationaljustice, andqualityofworklife.Anotherperspective liesinchecking therelationshipoftheinstrumentwithconsequentvariablessuch asjobperformance. Giventhediscussion withintheliterature whether the instrumental dimension is a commitment or not (Rodrigues&Bastos,2011a),furtherresearchwouldinvolvethis scale,theorganizationalcommitmentscalebyMeyerandAllen (1991),andthescaleoforganizationalentrenchment(Rodrigues &Bastos,2011b),inordertodeepenthediscussion.
Conflictsofinterest
Theauthorsdeclarenoconflictsofinterest.
Acknowledgements
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